Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee, has been called
"the most widely used psychoactive substance on Earth ."
Synder, Daly and Bruns have recently proposed that
caffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in
(5) the human brain of a naturally occurring chemical called
adenosine. Adenosine normally depresses neuron firing
in many areas of the brain. It apparently does this by
inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, chemicals
that carry nerve impulses from one neuron to the next.
(10) Like many other agents that affect neuron firing,
adenosine must first bind to specific receptors on
neuronal membranes. There are at least two classes
of these receptors, which have been designated A1 and
A2. Snyder et al propose that caffeine, which is struc-
(15) turally similar to adenosine, is able to bind to both types
of receptors, which prevents adenosine from attaching
there and allows the neurons to fire more readily than
they otherwise would.
For many years, caffeine's effects have been attri-
(20) buted to its inhibition of the production of phosphodi-
esterase, an enzyme that breaks down the chemical
called cyclic AMP.A number of neurotransmitters exert
their effects by first increasing cyclic AMP concentra-
tions in target neurons. Therefore, prolonged periods at
(25) the elevated concentrations, as might be brought about
by a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, could lead to a greater
amount of neuron firing and, consequently, to behav-
ioral stimulation. But Snyder et al point out that the
caffeine concentrations needed to inhibit the production
(30) of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher than
those that produce stimulation. Moreover, other com-
pounds that block phosphodiesterase's activity are not
stimulants.
To buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by pre-
(35) venting adenosine binding, Snyder et al compared the
stimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives with
their ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in
the brains of mice. "In general," they reported, "the ability of the compounds to compete at the receptors
(40) correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion in
the mouse; i.e., the higher their capacity to bind at the
receptors, the higher their ability to stimulate locomo-
tion." Theophylline, a close structural relative of caffeine
and the major stimulant in tea, was one of the most
(45) effective compounds in both regards.
There were some apparent exceptions to the general
correlation observed between adenosine-receptor binding
and stimulation. One of these was a compound called
3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine(IBMX), which bound very
(50) well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyder
et al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block to
their hypothesis. The problem is that the compound has
mixed effects in the brain, a not unusual occurrence with
psychoactive drugs. Even caffeine, which is generally
(55) known only for its stimulatory effects, displays this
property, depressing mouse locomotion at very low
concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a plan for investigation of a phenomenon
that is not yet fully understood
(B) present two explanations of a phenomenon and
reconcile the differences between them
(C) summarize two theories and suggest a third theory
that overcomes the problems encountered in the first
two
(D) describe an alternative hypothesis and provide
evidence and arguments that support it
(E) challenge the validity of a theory by exposing the
inconsistencies and contradictions in it
2. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the
theory proposed by Snyder et al?
(A) At very low concentrations in the human brain. both
caffeine and theophylline tend to have depressive
rather than stimulatory effects on human behavior.
(B) The ability of caffeine derivatives at very low
concentrations to dislodge adenosine from its
receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their
ability to stimulate mouse locomotion at these low
concentrations
(C) The concentration of cyclic AMP in target neurons
in the human brain that leads to increased neuron
firing can be produced by several different
phosphodi esterase inhibitors in addition to caffeine.
(D) The concentration of caffeine required to dislodge
adenosine from its receptors in the human brain is
much greater than the concentration that produces
behavioral stimulation in humans.
(E) The concentration of IBMX required to dislodge
adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains is much
smaller than the concentration that stimulates
locomotion in the mouse.
3. According so Snyder et al, caffeine differs from
adenosine in that caffeine
(A) stimulates behavior in the mouse and in humans,
whereas adenosine stimulates behavior in humans
only
(B) has mixed effects in the brain, whereas adenosine
has only a stimulatory effect
(C) increases cyclic AMP concentrations in target
neurons, whereas adenosine decreases such
concentrations
(D) permits release of neurotransmitters when it is
bound to adenosine receptors, whereas adenosine
inhibits such release
(E) inhibits both neuron firing and the production of
phosphodiesterase when there is a sufficient
concentration in the brain, whereas adenosine
inhibits only neuron firing
4. In response to experimental results concerning IBMX,
Snyder et al contended that it is not uncommon for
psychoactive drugs to have
(A) mixed effects in the brain
(B) inhibitory effects on enzymes in the brain
(C) close structural relationships with caffeine
(D) depressive effects on mouse locomotion
(E) the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors
in the brain
5. The passage suggests that Snyder et al believe that if the
older theory concerning caffeine's effects were correct,
which of the following would have to be the case?
Ⅰ.All neurotransmitters would increase the short-term
concentration of cyclic AMP in target neurons.
Ⅱ.Substances other than caffeine that inhibit the
production of phosphodiesterase would be stimulants.
Ⅲ.All concentration levels of caffeine that are high
enough to produce stimulation would also inhibit the
production of phosphodiesterase.
(A) Ⅰ only
(B) Ⅰ and Ⅱ only
(C) Ⅰand Ⅲ only
(D) Ⅱ and Ⅲ only
(E) Ⅰ,Ⅱ,and Ⅲ
6. According to Snyder et al, all of the following
compounds can bind to specific receptors in the brain
EXCEPT
(A) IBMX
(B) caffeine
(C) adenosine
(D) theophylline
(E) phosphodiesterase
7. Snyder et al suggest that caffeine's ability to bind to A1
and A2 receptors can be at least partially attributed to
which of the following?
(A) The chemical relationship between caffeine and
phosphodiesterase
(B) The structural relationship between caffeine and
adenosine
(C) The structural similarity between caffeine and
neurotransmitters
(D) The ability of caffeine to stimulate behavior
(E) The natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in
the brain
8. The author quotes Snyder et al in lines 38-43 most
probably in order to
(A) reveal some of the assumptions underlying their
theory
(B) summarize a major finding of their experiments
(C) point out that their experiments were limited to the
mouse
(D) indicate that their experiments resulted only in
general correlations
(E) refute the objections made by supporters of the older
theory
9. The last paragraph of the passage performs which of the
following functions?
(A) Describes a disconfirming experimental result
and reports the explanation given by Snyder et al in
an attempt to reconcile this result with their theory.
(B) Specifies the basis for the correlation observed by
Snyder et al and presents an explanation in an
attempt to make the correlation consistent with the
operation of psychoactive drugs other than caffeine.
(C) Elaborates the description of the correlation
observed by Snyder et al and suggests an additional
explanation in an attempt to make the correlation
consistent with the older theory.
(D) Reports inconsistent experimental data and
describes the method Snyder et al will use to
reanalyze this data.
(E) Provides an example of the hypothesis proposed by
Snyder et al and relates this example to caffeine's
properties.
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Can somebody help me with the last and the 1st question? 
