When scientists discuss the point in the evolutionary process at which a sense of fairness arose in human beings, one of two theories generally prevails. The first theory holds that a sense of fairness – or, more generally, morality – is a late and mostly intellectual addition to the evolutionary process. In this view morality is defined as a set of rules agreed upon by a society, permitting human beings to “rise above” the raw violence and competition found in “nature.” In certain circles this idea is known as “veneer theory,” because it posits human morality as a thin crust on a violently churning interior.
The second theory, by contrast, does not set nature and morality in direct opposition, but rather holds a sense of fairness to be as much a part of human “nature” as violence and competition. Advocates of this theory most often appeal to the behavior of other primates to argue that humans possess an innate sense of fairness common to other species of a shared evolutionary past. Orangutans, for example, have been observed to throw temper tantrums when teased by being shown an apple they are not allowed to have. Experiments with monkeys offering them two kinds of rewards for performing simple tasks have shown that they will refuse the less-preferred reward if they see their companions receiving the preferred reward for performing the same task.
1. Which of the following best describes the primary purpose of this passage?
(a) To speculate about the origins of violence in humans and other primates.
(b) To refute the idea that human nature is inherently violent.
(c) To illustrate the ways in which primates demonstrate an inherent sense of fairness.
(d) To compare and contrast two theories about the development of a sense of fairness in human evolution.
(e) To criticize the assertion that human morality is intended to rise above the violence and competition found in nature.
2. According to the passage, the common concern of the two theories presented in the passage is
(a) Whether orangutans and other primates possess an innate sense of fairness.
(b) Whether a sense of fairness should be considered an earlier or more recent development in the evolution of human beings.
(c) Whether a sense of fairness can rightly be called
morality.
(d) Whether morality is the basis of human social patterns, or is a surface concern.
(e) Whether morality is innate, or the result of a series of social interactions and agreements.
3. Which of the following, if added to the end of the passage, would make the best conclusion to the discussion of the second theory?
(a) For advocates of this theory, the behavior of primates offers evidence that a sense of fairness evolved before primate species differentiated, making morality just as “natural” to humans as violence and competition.
(b) In conclusion, both orangutans and monkeys were observed to raise strenuous objections when they felt that a received standard of fairness had somehow been violated.
(c) In contrast to veneer theory, then, the second theory’s use of observation and experiment lends it a credibility that can not be denied.
(d) Because orangutans and monkeys, at least in these examples, demonstrated a clear sense of fairness, it can reasonably be concluded that morality comes more naturally to them than it does to humans.
(e) Despite the suggestion that primates such as monkeys and orangutans possess an innate sense of fairness, however, most scientists continue to accept veneer theory.
4. The passage suggests which of the following about the condition of “nature,” according to veneer theory?
(a) Societies agree to rules of morality in order to recondition themselves to resist the violence and competition of nature.
(b) Nature is inherently violent and competitive and may be contained, but can not be changed.
(c) The violence and competition found in nature must be transformed by morality in order for humans to live peacefully.
(d) Human beings constitute a thin crust living on the outside of a chaotic core of nature.
(e) Morality is as much a part of nature as violence and competition.
5. According to the passage, which of the following is evidence that the development of a sense of fairness occurred early in the evolution of human beings?
(a) History shows that violence and competition have not been a significant part of human behavior.
(b) Societies establish laws designed to enforce agreed-upon ideals of fairness, and to protect members from violence.
(c) Observation demonstrates that this sense is shared by other primates such as orangutans and monkeys.
(d) Orangutans became visibly upset when they were unfairly denied something they wanted.
(e) Experiments involving monkeys prove that primates feel entitled to rewards when they have successfully completed simple tasks.
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16 Sep 2014, 02:00
