Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas

Let's see what the argument wants to present-

Consider there is an ancestor creature called "X". And there is another creature called "O" (Orcas).
"X" has evolved to "O" and few other creatures.

Conventional biologists: The evolution of "X" to "O" is completely genetical.

Recent Research: The evolution of "X" to "O" is based on Culture + Genetic (culture-based biological evolution). The author favors this.

BF1:
All Biologists: There are distinct creatures "O", "P", "Q", "R" and "S" that display different behaviors. All these creatures share a single ancestor called "X" as recently as 200,000 years ago.

BF2: Humans have culture-based evolution.
All humans had a common ancestor, but our behaviour is different. Our culture influences our behaviour (Good/Bad/etc).

The position that the argument seeks to establish:
Evolution of both orcas and humans are culture-based biological evolution. So Conventional biologists are wrong.

Going via options:

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
They favor the position, not challenge.

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
Argument and the BFs are on the same side. They do not oppose others.

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
This is true. BF1, BF2 and the argument are against the position of Conventional biologists.

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
BF1 and BF2 are not against each other.

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
BF1 and BF2 are not against each other.

Answer C

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. (INCORRECT - The evidence provided did not challenge the position the argument seeks to establish instead it supports)

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. (INCORRECT - The evidence provided did not support the position the argument was trying to oppose, is like saying the opposite of what the evidence did)

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. (CORRECT - The evidences provided were used to challenge the position the argument was trying to oppose)

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position. (INCORRECT - The first bold part did not object the position the argument seeks to establish rather it supports it)

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence. (INCORRECT - This makes the similar mistake to answer choice D. In addition, the second bold part did not counter the force of the evidence provided in the first bold part but it rather supports it)

Hence answer choice C.
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Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales. The conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. However, reliable recent research suggests that underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution. No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
Analysis:
BF1: whales share a single ancestor before branching off --> so the evolution is likely to be cultural base biological evolution
BF2: humans have culture-based biological evolution --> so the evolution is likely to be cultural base biological evolution in whales
Conclusion: the evolution is likely to be cultural base biological evolution
The conventional biologists: genetic explanation is the evolution
BF1 & BF2 supports the conclusion, but challenges the conventional biologists option

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. --> both challenge the position that argument seeks to oppose
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. --> both support the position that argument seeks to establish
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. --> correct
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position. --> BF2 is not the position
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence. --> both support the position that argument seeks to establish

Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales. The conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. However, reliable recent research suggests that underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution. No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

First boldface: before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. It is a premise/evidence.
Second boldface: humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

It is evident that both first and second boldface are FOR culture/behavior based evolution.
Conclusion/position: underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution.
Position/Conclusion challenged: The conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution.

In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
First and second boldface are supporting the position that the argument seeks to establish. Incorrect
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
First and second boldface are supporting the position that the argument seeks to establish. Incorrect
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
The argument seeks to oppose genetic explanation of evolution and the first and second boldface describe evident that has been used to challenge the position the argument seeks to oppose. Correct
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
The first and second boldface are FOR culture-based evolution and don't object to each other. Incorrect
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
The first and second boldface are FOR culture-based evolution and don't COUNTER each other. Incorrect

IMO C

Argument: that orcas' evolution was a culture-based biological evolution rather than a genetic evolution.
Bold [1] and [2] are each used to support the argument.

(A) "[1] and [2] used to challenge the argument" actually, the evidence is used to support the argument.
(B) "[1] and [2] used to support the proponents of genetic evolution" the evidence is used to support the argument.
(D) "[1] used as basis for objection to argument; [2] is that position" [1] and [2] are used to sup the argument.
(E) "[1] used as basis for objection to the position the argument seeks to oppose; [2] consideration to counter [1]" [1] and [2] are used to sup the argument, they are not against each other.

Answer (C).

The position of conventional biologists is that evolution is exclusively genetic

The position of the argument is that cultural evolution lies underneath genetic evolution.

The first boldface is an established fact that is accepted by all biologists.

The second boldface is given by the author as an implication of how the fact established in the first boldface could influence apologists of the conventional theory meaning that these people could consider cultural evolution theory.

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
The two boldfaces support the position of the argument.

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
The two boldfaces support the position of the argument.

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
Correct. They both describe the finding that cultural evolution exists

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
This says the boldfaces are on opposite sides but they are in fact on the same side

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
This says the boldfaces are on opposite sides but they are in fact on the same side

Answer is (C)
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Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales. The conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. However, reliable recent research suggests that underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution. No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.


Both statements points to same tsory lines . They act against "Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales"
In the given portions each is a statement to underlined the first statement.


In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. Argument seeks to establish opposition
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.They both oppos nt support
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.Correct as stated above
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.Second is a statement not position
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.Both states same. Second also favors oppsoiton


Hence C
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The argument starts off with the explanation given by the conventional biologists.
But the author then opposes the idea which can be then understood through the keyword "however"
In the next 2 lines, author tries to support the position of opposing the explanation given by the conventional biologists.
BF1 and BF 2 both are part of the same side as both support the idea author is trying to present.

POE:

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.: It instead challenges the explanation given by the biologists
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. : it opposes the position the argument seeks to oppose. Argument seeks to oppose the explanation of author. and hence BFs oppose that explanation
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. Yes it challenges the position which the author is opposing as here the position is the explanation of author.
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position. : Incorrect as both support authors conclusion.
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.: both are on the same side. they dont counter each other

ANswer is C

“A brief history of humankind” by Yuval Noah Harari that I bumped into a few months ago was a good introductory to this topic.

Interpretation of the argument: Population can be classified into five basic personality types: Optimistic, Pessimistic, Trusting, Envious and the one that is not yet labeled. However, 200,000 years ago, before dividing into these distinct groups, people had a common genetic bottleneck or they had a common ancestor. In other words, 200 millenniums ago we all had the same genes. Then why we are so different? For sure, that’s not due to distinct genes since once we had similar genes or had the same parents. The reason must be culture-based biological evolution.

Similarly, orcas, together with other organisms in the set to which they belong, had the most recent individual from which the organisms from such set are directly descended. Correspondingly, many-many years ago orcas had the same genes like that other similar organisms such as other whales, dolphins, and etc. Then why orcas are so different or are killers? Surely, that’s not for distinct genes. As it happened to another set of organisms such as people, orcas must also have become so different or killer because of culture-based biological evolution.

Why does the author use people as the sample? People are the creatures who have the most varying and distinctive behavior regardless of having had similar genes before. If the reason of our distinctiveness is culture-based biological evolution, then the very evolution must have lead different behaviors in other creatures too.

Question: How did orcas evolve as a killer whale? Why don’t they eat what other whales do?

Conventional biologists: That’s because orcas have distinct genes that dictate them to kill.

Author: A recent research shows that culture-based biological evolution causes distinct genes. In other words, orcas are not inborn killers, but the environment they live in and necessity make them kill. Even individuals who initially had similar genes now behave differently. Conventional biologists must consider that the reason for such different behavior is culture-based biological evolution, not distinct genes.

After detailed analyses we can see that both boldfaces describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose (using those evidences, author says that conventional biologists are wrong). C says the same thing.

A. Both evidences serve to prove what the author says, not to oppose him. Incorrect

B. Both evidences oppose the explanation given by conventional biologists, but not support it. Incorrect

D. The first boldface doesn’t oppose the second, but they both say support the same idea of culture-based biological evolution. Incorrect

E. The second boldface doesn’t oppose the first, but they both say support the same idea of culture-based biological evolution. Incorrect

Hence C
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In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
Both boldfaces are actually supporting the position argument seek to establish.................Eliminated.

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
Both boldfaces are actually supporting the position argument seek to establish.................Eliminated.

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
It means that boldfaces and argument are challenging the same position, which is true.................Correct Answer.

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
First and second both support the same position..................Eliminated.

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
Second is supporting the first one..................Eliminated.


ANSWER: C

ANALYSIS:
Conventional biologists = GENETIC ---->position that argument is OPPOSING.... 1st POSITION
RELIABLE Research = CULTURAL-------> position that argument is ESTABLISHING.... 2nd POSITION
1st bold part = Createures shared single ancestors 200k yrs ago ------> Evidence in SUPPORT OF 2nd POSITION, CHALLENGING 1st POSITION
2nd bold part = Humans have cultural evolution -------> Evidence in SUPPORT OF 2nd POSITION, CHALLENGING 1st POSITION


A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
>> bold parts are NOT CHALLENGING the position of the argument, they are SUPPORTING it... DISCARDED.

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
>> Same as option A, written in a reverse manner... bold parts are NOT SUPPORTING the OPPOSING position. they are CHALLENGING it.... DISCARDED.

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
>> Yes, both bold parts are CHALLENGING the position that is OPPOSED... which is the same as saying they are SUPPORTING the POSITION OF THE ARGUMENT.. lets still evaluate other options.... THIS SEEMS CORRECT

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
>> 1st part is NOT OBJECTING the position of the argument, it is SUPPORTING it. 2nd is not any position, it merely supports a position.... DISCARDED.

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
>> The 1st does object to opposing position. BUT, 2ns is NOT COUNTERING 1st. It is supporting 1st..... DISCARDED.


ANSWER: C

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
THE argument does not seek to establish the position (OUT)

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
BF1 and BF2 does not support the position (Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales.) (OUT)

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
YES the argument seeks to oppose the position and BF1 and BF2 have been used to challenge the position (CORRECT)

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
BF2 is not the position (OUT)

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
BF2 does not counter the BF1 (OUT)

Intermediate conclusion: the conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. --> this is a position to be opposed
Statement 1: before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. --> support main conclusion
Statement 2: humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence. --> support main conclusion
Main conclusion of the argument: The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used not to challenge, but to support the position that the argument seeks to establish.

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks not to oppose, but to establish.

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
CORRECT ANSWER. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose, or namely the intermediate conclusion.

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks not to establish, but to oppose; the second is simply not a position.

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
The first in indeed an evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced not to counter, but to support the force of that evidence

Answer is (C)

Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales. The conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. However, reliable recent research suggests that underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution. No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago. The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

Type: boldface

if we break it down : ___ ->lets jumble for better understanding
(BF1)No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago.

(BF2)While The apologists of the conventional explanation shall confer that humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence.

(position)So despite Opinions have long been divided upon the evolution of Orcas, the killer whales., the conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution.

(Conclusion)However, reliable recent research suggests that underneath the genetic distinction lies culture-based biological evolution



So this is the order BF1 and BF2 ( both talks about in support of cultural undercurrent) are opposing the position that the conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution.

Conclusion by using "however" also opposes that position



A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish.
Here first part is right. But the argument is not seeking to establish that position . It is actually opposing the position that conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution. So this is wrong

B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose.
The first and the second are not supporting , they are challenging the position. So this is wrong

C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose.

This perfectly matches,
1) The first and the second each describe evidence yes both are evidence
2) To challenge the position that the conventional biologists have long extended a genetic explanation to their evolution
3) the argument seeks to oppose yes argument says there is a cultural undercurrent to it.

So this is correct choice

D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
The second is not the position .it is also evidence to challenge the position. So this is wrong

E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
First BF1 explanation is right. But the second is not used to counter the evidence that infact adds to the evidence to challenge the opposition. so wrong


Hence ans is C

The argument challenges the position of genetic explanation by conventional biologists on the evolution of orcas. The third sentence introduced a background to a new view, culture based evolution, which opposes the genetic view on the evolution of orcas.

The first and second boldfaced present evidences in support of culture based evolution, which opposes the genetic as clearly stated in option C.

Option A suggests that the two boldfaces have been used to challenge the position the argument seeks to establish. This is erroneous because the boldfaces do the reverse of option A. They rather offer evidences that oppose the position of conventional biologists, which is what the argument seeks to oppose.
Rather than support the position the argument opposes as stated in B, the two boldfaces offer evidences which oppose the position the argument challenges.

In D, it is stated that the first boldface opposes the argument the author seeks to establish, and this is erroneous. This is because the first boldface rather opposes the argument the author challenges.

E states that the second boldface counters the position of the argument, and this is untrue. The second boldface rather presents further evidence in opposition to the position of genetic evolution held by the conventional biologists.

The answer is therefore C.

Posted from my mobile device

One of the toughest arguments to digest. Let's break down into easy pieces this argument.
Once upon a time, orcas and other other kinds of whales and dolphin-family creatures shared one ancestor that is they were of the same kind. No difference between the whales. But gradually with time, whales began to behave differently. Likewise, once upon a time all people were alike that is had one ancestor. Now, we have different traits; some are altruists, conservatives, emotional, traditionalists, etc. How come if we originate, like orcas, from the same ancestor, we are so different today?
There are two theories going on here:
1. Conventional biologists: we have (and had too) different genes
2. Cultural-based biological evolution (author is supportive of them): Culture and environment changed behavior of whales. Some became cute and nice (dolphins) and others became aggressive and killers like orcas. These differences became possible because of different environment whales lived in (and still are).
Now that we have some idea of the argument, let's see BF sentences.
BF 1: before branching off into five distinct groups displaying different behaviors, the creatures shared a single ancestor as recently as 200,000 years ago - prove wrong conventional biologists. Although shared a single ancestor, creatures become different due to culture based evolution. This goes against what conventional biologists say
BF 2: humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence. - people are used as an example of how having one ancestor can still lead to different mankind. Again, author goes against conventional biologists.
In both BF, author challenges conventional biologists position. Now, let's jump onto the options.


A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. - nope, both BF support author, not challenge him. Eliminate
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. - nope, both challenge what author seeks to oppose (conventional biologists)
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. - bingo! yes, both BF go against what author seeks to oppose (conventional biologists). Keep C
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position. - nope, first is by no means opposes the second. Eliminate
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence. - this one is like D, but here second opposes first. But this is wrong, neither first nor second oppose each other. They are both supportive of the author's opinion in cultural-based biological theory. Eliminate

Only C withstands my criticism, thus is my answer.

The answer is C.

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. - the evidence opposes the position that the argument opposes so this is not true


B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. - the evidence opposes the position that the argument opposes so this is not true


C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. - yes exactly right


D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position.
- it is not objecting to the argument so wrong. evidence opposes the position that the argument opposes so this is not true


E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence
- both actually opposes the position that the argument opposes so this is not true

Posted from my mobile device

Summary: Opinions varies w.r.t the evolution of Orcas.
CB says genetic explanation is the cause.
Reliable recent research culture-based biological evolution is the subfactor.
No biologist disputes that before branching off into five distinct groups Orcas shared a single ancestor recently 0- supports what the argument wants to oppose
The supporters of the C.explination say humans have culture-based biological evolution to thank for their existence. used to counter the above evidence

A. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to establish. - Second does not describe evidence; First and second support different views
B. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument seeks to oppose. Second does not describe evidence; First and second support different views
C. The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the argument seeks to oppose. Second does not describe evidence; First and second support different views
D. The first is a premise that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is that position. Second is not the position
E. The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to oppose; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence. - Correct, in line with analysis above

IMO E

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