In studying the autobiographies of Native Americans, most scholars

In studying the autobiographies of Native
Americans, most scholars have focused on as-told-to
life histories that were solicited, translated, recorded,
and edited by non-Native American collaborators—that
(5) emerged from “bicultural composite authorship.”
Limiting their studies to such written documents, these
scholars have overlooked traditional, preliterate modes
of communicating personal history. In addition, they
have failed to address the cultural constructs of the
(10) highly diverse Native American peoples, who prior to
contact with nonindigenous cultures did not share with
Europeans the same assumptions about self, life, and
writing that underlie the concept of an autobiography—
that indeed constitute the English word’s root meaning.

(15) The idea of self was, in a number of pre-contact
Native American cultures, markedly inclusive: identity
was not merely individual, but also relational to a
society, a specific landscape, and the cosmos. Within
these cultures, the expression of life experiences tended
(20) to be oriented toward current events: with the
participation of fellow tribal members, an individual
person would articulate, reenact, or record important
experiences as the person lived them, a mode of
autobiography seemingly more fragmented than the
(25) European custom of writing down the recollections of a
lifetime. Moreover, expression itself was not a matter
of writing but of language, which can include speech
and signs. Oral autobiography comprised songs, chants,
stories, and even the process whereby one repeatedly
(30) took on new names to reflect important events and
deeds in one’s life. Dance and drama could convey
personal history; for example, the advent of a vision to
one person might require the enactment of that vision
in the form of a tribal pageant.

(35) One can view as autobiographical the elaborate
tattoos that symbolized a warrior’s valorous deeds, and
such artifacts as a decorated shield that communicated
the accomplishments and aspirations of its maker, or a
robe that was emblazoned with the pictographic history
(40) of the wearer’s battles and was sometimes used in
reenactments. Also autobiographical, and indicative of
high status within the tribe, would have been a tepee
painted with symbolic designs to record the
achievements and display the dreams or visions of its
(45) owner, who was often assisted in the painting by other
tribal members.

A tribe would, then, have contributed to the
individual’s narrative not merely passively, by its
social codes and expectations, but actively by joining
(50) in the expression of that narrative. Such intercultural
collaboration may seem alien to the European style of
autobiography, yet any autobiography is shaped by its
creator’s ideas about the audience for which it is
intended; in this sense, autobiography is justly called a
(55) simultaneous individual story and cultural narrative.
Autobiographical expressions by early Native
Americans may additionally have been shaped by the
cultural perspectives of the people who transmitted
them.

1. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the passage?

(A) Scholars have tended to overlook the nuances of concepts about identity that existed in some of the early Native American cultures.
(B) As demonstrated by early Native Americans, autobiography can exist in a variety of media other than written documents.
(C) The Native American life histories collected and recorded by non-Native American writers differ from European-style autobiographies in their depictions of an individual’s relation to society.
(D) Early Native Americans created autobiographies with forms and underlying assumptions that frequently differ from those of European-style autobiographies.
(E) The autobiographical forms traditionally used by Native Americans are more fragmented than European forms and thus less easily recognizable as personal history.


2. Which one of the following phrases best conveys the author’s attitude toward the earlier scholarship on Native American autobiographies that is mentioned in the passage?

(A) “failed to address” (line 9)
(B) “highly diverse” (line 10)
(C) “markedly inclusive” (line 16)
(D) “seemingly more fragmented” (line 24)
(E) “alien to the European style” (line 51)


3. Which one of the following most accurately conveys the meaning of the phrase “bicultural composite authorship” as it is used in line 5 of the passage?

(A) written by a member of one culture but based on the artifacts and oral traditions of another culture
(B) written by two people, each of whom belongs to a different culture but contributes in the same way to the finished product
(C) compiled from the writings of people who come from different cultures and whose identities cannot be determined
(D) written originally by a member of one culture but edited and revised by a member of another culture
(E) written by a member of one culture but based on oral communication by a member of another culture


4. Which one of the following most accurately describes the function of the third paragraph within the passage as a whole?

(A) to refute traditional interpretations of certain artifacts
(B) to present evidence that undermines a theory
(C) to provide examples that support an argument
(D) to contrast several different modes of expression
(E) to enumerate specific instances in which a phenomenon recurred


5. The author of the passage refers to “self, life, and writing” (lines 12–13) most probably in order to

(A) identify concepts about which Europeans and Native Americans had contrasting ideas
(B) define a word that had a different meaning for early Native Americans than it has for contemporary Native Americans
(C) illustrate how words can undergo a change in meaning after their introduction into the language
(D) posit a fundamental similarity in the origins of a concept in both European and Native American cultures
(E) explain how the assumptions that underlie European-style autobiography arose


6. Which one of the following would be most consistent with the ideas about identity that the author attributes to pre-contact Native American cultures?

(A) A person who is born into one tribe but is brought up by members of another tribe retains a name given at birth.
(B) A pictograph that represents a specific person incorporates the symbol for a constellation.
(C) A similar ritual for assuming a new name is used in diverse communities.
(D) A name given to one member of a community cannot be given to another member of the same community.
(E) A decorated shield that belonged to an individual cannot be traced to a particular tribe.