In prehistoric times brachiopods were one of the most abundant and div

In prehistoric times brachiopods were one of the most abundant and diverse forms of life on Earth: more than 30,000 species of this clamlike creature have been cataloged from fossil records. Today brachiopods are not as numerous, and existing species are not well studied, partly because neither the animal’s fleshy inner tissue nor its shell has any commercial value. Moreover, in contrast to the greater diversity of the extinct species, the approximately 300 known surviving species are relatively uniform in appearance. Many zoologists have interpreted this as a sign that the animal has been unable to compete successfully with other marine organisms in the evolutionary struggle.

Several things, however, suggest that the conventional view needs revising. For example, the genus Lingula has an unbroken fossil record extending over more than half a billion years to the present. Thus, if longevity is any measure, brachiopods are the most successful organisms extant. Further, recent studies suggest that diversity among species is a less important measure of evolutionary success than is the ability to withstand environmental change, such as when a layer of clay replaces sand on the ocean bottom. The relatively greater uniformity among the existing brachiopod species may offer greater protection from environmental change and hence may reflect highly successful adaptive behavior.

The adaptive advantages of uniformity for brachiopods can be seen by considering specialization, a process that occurs as a result of prolonged colonization of a uniform substrate. Those that can survive on many surfaces are called generalists, while those that can survive on a limited range of substrates are called specialists. One specialist species, for example, has valves weighted at the base, a characteristic that assures that the organism is properly positioned for feeding in mud and similar substrates; other species secrete glue allowing them to survive on the face of underwater cliffs. The fossil record demonstrates that most brachiopod lineages have followed a trend toward increased specialization. However, during periods of environmental instability, when a particular substrate to which a specialist species has adapted is no longer available, the species quickly dies out. Generalists, on the other hand, are not dependent on a particular substrate, and are thus less vulnerable to environmental change. One study of the fossil record revealed a mass extinction of brachiopods following a change in sedimentation from chalk to clay. Of the 35 brachiopod species found in the chalk, only 6 survived in the clay, all of them generalists.

As long as enough generalist species are maintained, and studies of arctic and subarctic seas suggest that generalists are often dominant members of the marine communities there, it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to extinction.

1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) rejecting an earlier explanation for the longevity of certain brachiopod species
(B) reevaluating the implications of uniformity among existing brachiopod species
(C) describing the varieties of environmental change to which brachiopods are vulnerable
(D) reconciling opposing explanations for brachiopods’ lack of evolutionary success
(E) elaborating the mechanisms responsible for the tendency among brachiopod species toward specialization


2. It can be inferred from the passage that many zoologists assume that a large diversity among species of a given class of organisms typically leads to which of the following?

(A) Difficulty in classification
(B) A discontinuous fossil record
(C) A greater chance of survival over time
(D) Numerical abundance
(E) A longer life span


3. The second paragraph makes use of which of the following?

(A) Specific examples
(B) Analogy
(C) Metaphor
(D) Quotation
(E) Exaggeration


4. The author suggests that the scientists holding the conventional view mentioned in lines 15-16 make which of the following errors?

(A) They mistakenly emphasize survival rather than diversity.
(B) They misunderstand the causes of specialization.
(C) They misuse zoological terminology.
(D) They catalog fossilized remains improperly.
(E) They overlook an alternative criterion of evolutionary success.


5. It can be inferred from the passage that the decision to study an organism may sometimes be influenced by

(A) its practical or commercial benefits to society
(B) the nature and prevalence of its fossilized remains
(C) the relative convenience of its geographical distribution
(D) its similarity to one or more better-known species
(E) the degree of its physiological complexity


6. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s claim that “it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to extinction”? (Highlighted)

(A) Generalist species now living in arctic water give few if any indications of a tendency towards significant future specialization.
(B) Zoologists have recently discovered that a common marine organism is a natural predator of brachiopods.
(C) It was recently discovered that certain brachiopod species are almost always concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deposits.
(D) The ratio of specialist to Generalist species is slowly but steadily increasing.
(E) It is easier for a brachiopod to survive a change in sedimentation than a change in water temperature.


7. Information in the passage supports which of the following statements about brachiopods?

I. Few brachiopods living in prehistoric times were specialists.
II. A tendency toward specialization, though typical, is not inevitable.
III. Specialist species dominate in all but arctic and subarctic waters.

(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) II and III only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II and III