M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in

Question

M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in the 1780s to measure heat, elucidates his theory of a role that technology plays in society outside of the applications for which it has been developed.
 
In the schema given to us by Thomas Kuhn, as popularly understood, cultural differences are mediated through the paradigms that underlie theories--the theories' interconnected assumptions. According to Wise's theory, however, technologies act as cultural mediators, reconciling differences among different fields of thought and study, such as chemistry, political economy, and mathematics, and also connecting ideas with realities. When Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon de Laplace first invented the calorimeter, they thought of it in comparison to a simple physical device, the balance scale: the calorimeter balanced quantities of heat against quantities of melted ice. In fact, Lavoisier and Laplace conceived of the device somewhat differently, and in this respect the calorimeter performed mediation of the first kind. Lavoisier, who is remembered as a chemist, viewed the calorimeter as measuring a balance between chemical substances, whereas Laplace, who is remembered as a mathematician and physical astronomer, viewed the calorimeter as balancing forces.
 
The differing interests of Lavoisier and Laplace (who tried at least once to rid himself of the partnership in order to work on pure mathematics) caused tension. This tension between the otherwise distinct fields of chemistry and physical astronomy was resolved, in part, by the calorimeter itself; it provided a common ground to the two fields in its own  concrete existence  and quantitative measure, if not entirely in concept. Secondly, the calorimeter, in providing commonly accepted measurements, gave commonly accepted meanings to the ideas involved in interpreting those measurements: caloric fluid and the physical force of heat.
 
We are typically more inclined to view a new technological invention in the terms of Kuhn--it supports an existing paradigm, or, rarely, massively disrupts it and causes a paradigm shift. Wise would agree with Kuhn that our conception of the electron is reinforced by the television and the fiberoptic cable, but while Kuhn sees the theoretical relationship as one of champion against challenger, arbitrated through defeat and continued reigning victory, technologies per Wise arbitrate by harmonizing.   1 
 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. advocate a friendlier characterization of technology
B. discuss the broader implications of an invention of the late 1780s
C. explain a lesser-known theory of how technology influences our views of other fields of study
D. challenge the popular view of paradigm shifts
E. describe how the solution of an engineering problem solved a greater theoretical debate

2 
 2. Which of the following statements about the calorimeter is supported by information in the passage?

A. The new technology was significant because it gave a quantitative measurement to heat.
B. The device advanced the development of two fields of science, but at the expense of a critical scientific partnership.
C. The invention had a significance that extended far beyond its ability to measure heat.
D. More than just an invention, the new technology represented a paradigm shift.
E. The new technology was significant because, given the circumstances under which it was invented, it ended up playing a role in society outside of the applications for which it was developed.

3 
 3. Which of the following most likely expresses Wise's opinion of Kuhn's theory?

A. He is contemptuous of its use of metaphor.
B. He disagrees with the notion that a technology invariably supports or challenges the field's set of reigning underlying assumptions.
C. He approves of the wider significance that it gives to the role of technology in society.
D. He criticizes its failure to explain paradigm shifts in terms of mediation.
E. He shares its focus of the impact of modern technology on the psychology of scientists.

4 
 4. According to Wise's theory, if Lavoisier and Laplace had hypothetically cooperated to create another new technology after the calorimeter, that invention would most likely have

A. represented a new logical bridge relating disparate scientific ideas
B. advanced the quantitative measurement of heat in an unexpected fashion
C. been the final project they would work on together
D. resolved differences that had been generated by working on the calorimeter
E. led to a gentler form of paradigm shift

5 
 5. If Wise's theory were widely accepted, people would tend to view a new invention as a symbol of

A. A raging debate
B. A negotiated agreement
C. Further proof of a theory
D. A question to be answered through repeated use
E. The victor of a struggle

6 
 6. M. Norton Wise most likely chose the example of the calorimeter to elucidate his theory primarily because

A. as an older invention, it would be less prone to association with Kuhn's theory
B. as an invention less familiar to the reader, it would be viewed with fewer preconceived notions
C. it represented a turning point in the development of two scientific fields
D. it was developed by two scientists with different interpretations of the invention
E. it easily could be interpreted by both Wise's theory and Kuhn's theory

7 
 7. According to the author, how does calorimeter's "concrete existence" mentioned in the  highlighted text  resolve tension between two scientific fields?

A. As a physical device, it was a common tangible reference for the abstract ideas of both fields.
B. As a device that measured heat, it yielded quantitative readings that could be interpreted in both fields.
C. As an invention, it was a symbol of cooperation between leaders of scientific fields that sometimes saw the world differently.
D. As a physical device that belonged to two scientific fields, it was proof that two scientists with different theories could cooperate.
E. As a device that measured by balancing opposing forces, it was a physical symbol of mediation.

8 
 8. Which of the following statements about Wise's theory of technology in society can be inferred from information in the passage?

A. Wise's reason for developing his theory was to resolve certain discrepancies that he perceived in Kuhn's theory of paradigm shifts.
B. Wise's theory suggests that the development of new technologies should be explained to the public as the resolution of conflicts between fields.
C. Wise believed that technology functions as a mediator even when its creators share a common view of it.
D. Wise concluded that the abstract value of a new technology was greater than its originally intended, practical application.
E. Wise's characterization of how a new technology linked different fields of thought applied only to some technologies beyond those he had directly studied.

Source:  GMAT Free

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Official Explanation

4. According to Wise's theory, if Lavoisier and Laplace had hypothetically cooperated to create another new technology after the calorimeter, that invention would most likely have

Explanation

This question might sound like it is challenging our creativity, intuition, or psychological savvy, but no GMAT question will do such a thing. Rather, it is asking us to draw an inference: what prediction about the next invention of these two men is best supported by the statements in the passage?

Whenever you are asked to choose a valid inference, there is a world of possibilities, because many inferences are possible, but one trick works well: you can start with a modest but undeniable inference. This inference itself might be the answer, and if it isn't, it gives you a solid frame of reference by which to judge other inferences. For example, in this case, Wise's theory makes some claims about any technological invention, so these claims should also apply to L&L's next invention. Namely, L&L's next invention will be a cultural mediator, just as the calorimeter was. That fact alone might get us through the answer choices. Indeed,  (A)  fits our expectation perfectly by paraphrasing the concept of mediation. And if  (A)  weren't true, we would have a contradiction with the passage.

Choices (B)  through  (D)  have some plausibility but are unsupported by the passage.

Choice (E)  mangles ideas by articulating Wise's theory using the term "paradigm shift," which belongs to Kuhn's theory and inherently contradicts Wise's theory.

The correct answer is (A).

Hope it helps

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Official Explanation

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

Explanation

We have just stated the answer to this question (before looking at it) in our summary of the passage. Namely: the author explains Wise's theory through an example, the calorimeter, and a comparison, with Kuhn. Answer choices (A) and (D) are out for expressing too much opinion with "advocate" and "challenge."

Choices (B) and (E) make the invention the focal point of the passage in itself, whereas it occupies the stage only to "elucidate" Wise's theory. We are left with (C). Is (C) defect-free? We may wonder whether the author surely has conveyed that Wise's theory is "lesser-known." We have some support for this notion in the fact that Kuhn's theory is "popularly understood" and that "we are typically more inclined to view a new technological invention in the terms of Kuhn". Evidently Kuhn's theory is more popular and Wise's is less popular.

The correct answer is (C).

2. Which of the following statements about the calorimeter is supported by information in the passage?

Explanation

In this question, we can keep in mind that the calorimeter was a kind of "cultural mediator," according Wise's theory and to the passage. That may rule out or rule in answer choices. Choices (A) and (B) ignore or contradict the idea of mediation, so they are out.

Choice (C), though quite broad, is correct and is an assumption of Wise's theory--technology plays a role "in society outside of the applications for which it has been developed". So (C) stays in.

Choice (D) describes the calorimeter using Kuhn's theory, not Wise's, and the passage doesn't support that.

Choice (E) is similar to Choice (C), so we are left with (C) and (E). One has an objective fault; which is it? A clue is expressed in the fact that (E) says pretty much what (C) says, plus a bit more, and they can't both be flawed, so the flaw must reside in the extra bit of something that (E) expresses. Indeed, the error with (E) is that it implies that "the circumstances under which it was invented" were what made the calorimeter important. But this isn't what the passage claims, because the passage claims that all technology acts as a cultural mediator. The calorimeter happens to be a vivid example for the purpose of explaining this point. Choice (E) expresses something contrary to that point, so it's out.

The correct answer is (C).

3. Which of the following most likely expresses Wise's opinion of Kuhn's theory?

Explanation

This question seemingly asks us to put words in Wise's mouth, only we will not have to do that, because we will attribute a view to Wise based exactly on what the passage has told us. As we summarized earlier, Kuhn describes revolution, while Wise describes mediation. So Wise's criticism of Kuhn theory would be that it describes some things as revolutions that are better described as mediation. Simple enough. Let's see where that appears in the answer choices.

Both (B) and (D) are in the ballpark of this prediction. Choice (B) is accurate, because Kuhn's theory expressions that a technology "invariably supports or challenges," while in Wise's theory the technology can mediate differences.

Choice (D) is partly nonsensical, because "paradigm shifts" are an idea in Kuhn's theory and not in Wise's; Wise hasn't done any explaining of paradigm shifts and, since the paradigm shift is a concept that expresses Kuhn's inherently not-mediating idea, it can't be explained in terms of mediation. So (D) is out. So we have (B) as our answer, but to review the other choices:

(A) is inconsistent, because Wise also uses metaphor. In choice (C), what the "wider significance" is is exactly the point on which Kuhn and Wise differ.

Choice (E) is unsupported, as there is no discussion of the impact on the minds of scientists; for example, we don't know whether the calorimeter helped the two scientists personally understand each other better.

The correct answer is (B).

For question #4 click on below link

https://gmatclub.com/forum/m-norton-wis ... l#p2365943

5. If Wise's theory were widely accepted, people would tend to view a new invention as a symbol of

Explanation

This slightly metaphorical question hammers on the same point as some of the prior questions, which is whether we have understood the basic point of Wise's theory, mediation. Choices (A), (C) and (E) are all interpretations counter to Wise and in line with Kuhn.

Choice (D) is interesting but apart from what has been stated in the passage; technology still answers questions in Wise's theory and doesn't ask them. The answer expresses "mediation."

The correct answer is (B).

6. M. Norton Wise most likely chose the example of the calorimeter to elucidate his theory primarily because

Explanation

This question gives us another mind-reading exercise, one that, even more than others, might sound at first like it compels us to understand the psychology of M. Norton Wise. We must remind ourselves that, even if we don't know the truth about the psychology of Wise, the answer choices have objective differences. This question is slightly more difficult in that the correct answer is not compelled by the need to avoid contradicting the passage as directly as in other questions.

Choices (A) and (B) both have some degree of plausibility, because they describe factors that would aid Wise in the act of explaining. So we can come back to those.

Choices (C) and (E) both imply unsupported claims; we have no knowledge that the calorimeter was a turning point in chemistry and physics, or that Kuhn's theory easily can explain the calorimeter. So those two are out.

Choice (D) has a certain perfection: it says, in a way, that Wise choose the example of the calorimeter to explain his theory because the calorimeter was a fitting example. We can see that (D) is superior to (A) and (B) through a kind of negation test. Suppose we wanted to contend that the example of the calorimeter did not establish Wise's theory? Choice (D), if negated, would support our contention: the calorimeter, in fact, was not developed by two scientists with differences in view, for whatever reason. Such a fact would damage Wise's explanation and bolster our contention. (A) and (B) have no such material connection to Wise's argument.

The correct answer is (D).

7. According to the author, how does calorimeter's "concrete existence" mentioned in the highlighted text resolve tension between two scientific fields?

Explanation

This question references a specific line of the passage, which says that the calorimeter "provided a common ground to the two fields in its own concrete existence and quantitative measure, if not entirely in concept". In other words, the concepts behind it was different in the two fields, but the device itself, the actual physical thing, was shared by both fields. Choices (A) and (D) both are in the vicinity of this notion (a single physical device uniting different ideas). The idea that the calorimeter was a symbol is somewhat opposite to this idea and is not supported by the passage, so (C) and (E) are out.

Choice (B) is summarizing the wrong thing, "quantitative measure," not "concrete existence," so it's out. Between (A) and (D), choice (A) more accurately expresses the passage. The mediation that is occurring is one of "abstract ideas"--in this case, "chemical substances" and "forces" -not scientists who don't want to cooperate. The personal differences of L&L are significant primarily in that they highlight the two scientists' different views of the world, not because those differences are the subject of the mediation Wise is describing.

Therefore, the correct answer is (A).

8. Which of the following statements about Wise's theory of technology in society can be inferred from information in the passage?

Explanation

This question asks us for an inference, so the correct answer will be required logically by the passage, whether or not it is directly stated. We can evaluate individually whether each statement is required; if necessary, we can try negating it and seeing whether a contradiction with the passage is generated in doing so.

Choice (A) is hardly required by the passage; we never hear anything about the reasons for which Wise developed his theory, and we can image other reasons behind the theory without generating the slightest contradiction. (A) is out.

Choice (B) makes a claim that is more in line with Wise's theory and which has a whiff of plausibility, and/but which ventures into new territory--namely, what should be "explained to the public." Is this implied by the passage? The passage, in fact, grants that Kuhn's theory is better understood, and never makes the claim that the public misunderstands technology for this reason. So we can negate the claim in (B) without generating any inconsistency with the passage. (B) is out.

Choice (C) makes a claim that is irrelevant to the example of the calorimeter, but which is supported by the more general statements about technology in the passage. For example, "According to Wise's theory...technologies act as cultural mediators, reconciling differences among different fields of thought and study". Note that the differences are not among individuals in this summary statement, but rather among fields. The passage permits, and appears to require, that different fields will have their differences even when the inventors of a particular technology are themselves of one mind. Choice (C), therefore, will be the correct answer, though we will review choices (D) and (E).

Choice (D) makes a fairly ambitious and unsupported claim. We know essentially nothing about what Wise thinks of practical applications of the technologies mentioned in the passage--the calorimeter, the television, and the fiberoptic cable. The claim is unsupported and probably implausible. Furthermore, we can negate this statement and generate no contradiction with Wise's theory or with the passage. So (D) is out.

Choice (E) claims that Wise's theory is not universally true of technologies. In a sense, (E) is the opposite of (C), and (E) directly contradicts the statement as discussed in the context of choice (C). So, far from being necessarily true based on the passage, it is necessarily false, given the passage. So (E) is out.

The correct answer is (C).

Hope it helps

M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in

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M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in

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