M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in

M. Norton Wise's examination of the calorimeter, a machine invented in the 1780s to measure heat, elucidates his theory of a role that technology plays in society outside of the applications for which it has been developed.

In the schema given to us by Thomas Kuhn, as popularly understood, cultural differences are mediated through the paradigms that underlie theories--the theories' interconnected assumptions. According to Wise's theory, however, technologies act as cultural mediators, reconciling differences among different fields of thought and study, such as chemistry, political economy, and mathematics, and also connecting ideas with realities. When Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon de Laplace first invented the calorimeter, they thought of it in comparison to a simple physical device, the balance scale: the calorimeter balanced quantities of heat against quantities of melted ice. In fact, Lavoisier and Laplace conceived of the device somewhat differently, and in this respect the calorimeter performed mediation of the first kind. Lavoisier, who is remembered as a chemist, viewed the calorimeter as measuring a balance between chemical substances, whereas Laplace, who is remembered as a mathematician and physical astronomer, viewed the calorimeter as balancing forces.

The differing interests of Lavoisier and Laplace (who tried at least once to rid himself of the partnership in order to work on pure mathematics) caused tension. This tension between the otherwise distinct fields of chemistry and physical astronomy was resolved, in part, by the calorimeter itself; it provided a common ground to the two fields in its own concrete existence and quantitative measure, if not entirely in concept. Secondly, the calorimeter, in providing commonly accepted measurements, gave commonly accepted meanings to the ideas involved in interpreting those measurements: caloric fluid and the physical force of heat.

We are typically more inclined to view a new technological invention in the terms of Kuhn--it supports an existing paradigm, or, rarely, massively disrupts it and causes a paradigm shift. Wise would agree with Kuhn that our conception of the electron is reinforced by the television and the fiberoptic cable, but while Kuhn sees the theoretical relationship as one of champion against challenger, arbitrated through defeat and continued reigning victory, technologies per Wise arbitrate by harmonizing.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. advocate a friendlier characterization of technology
B. discuss the broader implications of an invention of the late 1780s
C. explain a lesser-known theory of how technology influences our views of other fields of study
D. challenge the popular view of paradigm shifts
E. describe how the solution of an engineering problem solved a greater theoretical debate



2. Which of the following statements about the calorimeter is supported by information in the passage?

A. The new technology was significant because it gave a quantitative measurement to heat.
B. The device advanced the development of two fields of science, but at the expense of a critical scientific partnership.
C. The invention had a significance that extended far beyond its ability to measure heat.
D. More than just an invention, the new technology represented a paradigm shift.
E. The new technology was significant because, given the circumstances under which it was invented, it ended up playing a role in society outside of the applications for which it was developed.



3. Which of the following most likely expresses Wise's opinion of Kuhn's theory?

A. He is contemptuous of its use of metaphor.
B. He disagrees with the notion that a technology invariably supports or challenges the field's set of reigning underlying assumptions.
C. He approves of the wider significance that it gives to the role of technology in society.
D. He criticizes its failure to explain paradigm shifts in terms of mediation.
E. He shares its focus of the impact of modern technology on the psychology of scientists.



4. According to Wise's theory, if Lavoisier and Laplace had hypothetically cooperated to create another new technology after the calorimeter, that invention would most likely have

A. represented a new logical bridge relating disparate scientific ideas
B. advanced the quantitative measurement of heat in an unexpected fashion
C. been the final project they would work on together
D. resolved differences that had been generated by working on the calorimeter
E. led to a gentler form of paradigm shift



5. If Wise's theory were widely accepted, people would tend to view a new invention as a symbol of

A. A raging debate
B. A negotiated agreement
C. Further proof of a theory
D. A question to be answered through repeated use
E. The victor of a struggle



6. M. Norton Wise most likely chose the example of the calorimeter to elucidate his theory primarily because

A. as an older invention, it would be less prone to association with Kuhn's theory
B. as an invention less familiar to the reader, it would be viewed with fewer preconceived notions
C. it represented a turning point in the development of two scientific fields
D. it was developed by two scientists with different interpretations of the invention
E. it easily could be interpreted by both Wise's theory and Kuhn's theory



7. According to the author, how does calorimeter's "concrete existence" mentioned in the highlighted text resolve tension between two scientific fields?

A. As a physical device, it was a common tangible reference for the abstract ideas of both fields.
B. As a device that measured heat, it yielded quantitative readings that could be interpreted in both fields.
C. As an invention, it was a symbol of cooperation between leaders of scientific fields that sometimes saw the world differently.
D. As a physical device that belonged to two scientific fields, it was proof that two scientists with different theories could cooperate.
E. As a device that measured by balancing opposing forces, it was a physical symbol of mediation.



8. Which of the following statements about Wise's theory of technology in society can be inferred from information in the passage?

A. Wise's reason for developing his theory was to resolve certain discrepancies that he perceived in Kuhn's theory of paradigm shifts.
B. Wise's theory suggests that the development of new technologies should be explained to the public as the resolution of conflicts between fields.
C. Wise believed that technology functions as a mediator even when its creators share a common view of it.
D. Wise concluded that the abstract value of a new technology was greater than its originally intended, practical application.
E. Wise's characterization of how a new technology linked different fields of thought applied only to some technologies beyond those he had directly studied.