Historians attempting to explain how scientific work was done in the

Question

Historians attempting to explain how scientific work was done in the laboratory of the seventeenth-century chemist and natural philosopher Robert Boyle must address a fundamental discrepancy between how such experimentation was actually performed and the  seventeenth-century rhetoric  describing it. Leaders of the new Royal Society of London in the 1660s insisted that authentic science depended upon actual experiments performed, observed, and recorded by the scientists themselves. Rejecting the traditional contempt for manual operations, these scientists, all members of the English upper class, were not to think themselves demeaned by the mucking about with chemicals, furnaces, and pumps; rather, the willingness of each of them to become, as Boyle himself said, a mere “drudge” and “under-builder” in the search for God’s truth in nature was taken as a sign of their nobility and Christian piety.

This rhetoric has been so effective that one modern historian assures us that Boyle himself actually performed all of the thousand or more experiments he reported. In fact, due to poor eyesight, fragile health, and frequent absences from his laboratory, Boyle turned over much of the labor of obtaining and recording experimental results to paid technicians, although published accounts of the experiments rarely, if ever, acknowledged the technicians’ contributions. Nor was Boyle unique in relying on technicians without publicly crediting their work.

Why were the contributions of these technicians not recognized by their employers? One reason is the historical tendency, which has persisted into the twentieth century, to view scientific discovery as resulting from momentary flashes of individual insight rather than from extended periods of cooperative work by individuals with varying levels of knowledge and skill. Moreover, despite  the clamor of seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric  commending a hands-on approach, science was still overwhelmingly an activity of the English upper class, and the traditional contempt that genteel society maintained for manual labor was pervasive and deeply rooted. Finally, all of Boyle’s technicians were “servants,” which in seventeenth-century usage meant anyone who worked for pay. To seventeenth-century sensibilities, the  wage relationship  was charged with political significance. Servants, meaning wage earners, were excluded from the franchise because they were perceived as ultimately dependent on their wages and thus controlled by the will of their employers. Technicians remained invisible in the political economy of science for the same reasons that underlay servants’ general political exclusion. The technicians’ contribution, their observations and judgment, if acknowledged, would not have been perceived in the larger scientific community as objective because the technicians were dependent on the wages paid to them by their employers. Servants might have made the apparatus work, but their contributions to the making of scientific knowledge were largely—and conveniently—ignored by their employers.   1 
 1. Which one of the following best summarizes the main idea of the passage?

(A) Seventeenth-century scientific experimentation would have been impossible without the work of paid laboratory technicians.
(B) Seventeenth-century social conventions prohibited upper-class laboratory workers from taking public credit for their work.
(C) Seventeenth-century views of scientific discovery combined with social class distinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians’ scientific work was never publicly acknowledged.
(D) Seventeenth-century scientists were far more dependent on their laboratory technicians than are scientists today, yet far less willing to acknowledge technicians’ scientific contributions.
(E) Seventeenth-century scientists liberated themselves from the stigma attached to manual labor by relying heavily on the work of laboratory technicians.

2 
 2. It can be inferred from the passage that the “seventeenth-century rhetoric” ( Highlighted ) would have more accurately described the experimentation performed in Boyle’s laboratory if which one of the following were true?

(A) Unlike many seventeenth-century scientists, Boyle recognized that most scientific discoveries resulted from the cooperative efforts of many individuals.
(B) Unlike many seventeenth-century scientists, Boyle maintained a deeply rooted and pervasive contempt for manual labor.
(C) Unlike many seventeenth-century scientists, Boyle was a member of the Royal Society of London.
(D) Boyle generously acknowledged the contribution of the technicians who worked in his laboratory.
(E) Boyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording experimental results.

3 
 3. According to the author, servants of seventeenth-century England were excluded from the franchised because of the belief that

(A) their interests were adequately represented by their employers
(B) their education was inadequate to make informed political decisions
(C) the independence of their political judgment would be compromised by their economic dependence on their employers
(D) their participation in the elections would be a polarizing influence on the political process
(E) the manual labor that they performed did not constitute a contribution to the society that was sufficient to justify their participation in elections

4 
 4. According to the author, the Royal Society of London insisted that scientists abandon the

(A) belief that the primary purpose of scientific discovery was to reveal the divine truth that could be found in nature
(B) view that scientific knowledge results largely from the insights of a few brilliant individuals rather than from the cooperative efforts of many workers
(C) seventeenth-century belief that servants should be denied the right to vote because they were dependent on wages paid to them by their employers
(D) traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of the English upper class during the seventeenth-century
(E) idea that the search for scientific truth was a sign of piety

5 
 5. The author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the seventeenth and the twentieth centuries?

(A) Individual insights rather than cooperative endeavors produce most scientific discoveries.
(B) How science is practiced is significantly influenced by the political beliefs and assumption of scientists.
(C) Scientific research undertaken for pay cannot be considered objective.
(D) Scientific discovery can reveal divine truth in nature.
(E) Scientific discovery often relies on the unacknowledged contributions of laboratory technicians.

6 
 6. Which one of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph?

(A) Several alternative answers are presented to a question posed in the previous paragraph, and the last is adopted as the most plausible.
(B) A question regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph is posed, two possible explanations are rejected, and evidence is provided in support of a third.
(C) A question regarding the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph is posed, and several incompatible views are presented.
(D) A question regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph is posed, and several contributing factors are then discussed.
(E) Several answers to a question are evaluated in light of recent discoveries cited earlier in the passage.

7 
 7. The author’s discussion of the political significance of the “wage relationship” ( Highlighted ) serves to

(A) place the failure of seventeenth-century scientists to acknowledge the contributions of their technicians in the large context of relations between workers and their employers in seventeenth-century England
(B) provide evidence in support of the author’s more general thesis regarding the relationship of scientific discovery to the economic conditions of societies in which it takes place
(C) provide evidence in support of the author’s explanation of why scientists in seventeenth-century England were reluctant to rely on their technicians for the performance of anything but the most menial tasks
(D) illustrate political and economic changes in the society of seventeenth-century England that had a profound impact on how scientific research was conduced
(E) undermine the view that scientific discovery results from individual enterprise rather than from the collective endeavor of many workers

8 
 8. It can be inferred from the passage that “the clamor of seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric” (Highlighted) refers to

(A) the claim that scientific discovery results largely from the insights of brilliant individuals working alone
(B) ridicule of scientists who were members of the English upper class and who were thought to demean themselves by engaging in the manual labor required by their experiments
(C) criticism of scientists who publicly acknowledged the contributions of their technicians
(D) assertions by members of the Royal Society of London that scientists themselves should be responsible for obtaining and recording experimental results
(E) the claim by Boyle and his colleagues that the primary reason for scientific research is to discover evidence of divine truth in the natural world

Skywalker18 · Accepted Answer

All correct in 16 mins, including 5 mins 40 seconds to read.

Para 1- how experiments were performed in reality vs the rhetoric; scientists rejected traditional contempt for manual operations, in search of God's truth
Para 2- effective rhetoric, In reality, RB used paid technicians 
Para 3- contributions of these technicians not recognized by their employers- reasons

1. Which one of the following best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
(C) Seventeenth-century views of scientific discovery combined with social class distinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians’ scientific work was never publicly acknowledged.- Correct

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the “seventeenth-century rhetoric” (Highlighted) would have more accurately described the experimentation performed in Boyle’s laboratory if which one of the following were true?
(E) Boyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording experimental results.

This rhetoric has been so effective that one modern historian assures us that Boyle himself actually performed all of the thousand or more experiments he reported. In fact, due to poor eyesight, fragile health, and frequent absences from his laboratory, Boyle turned over much of the labor of obtaining and recording experimental results to paid technicians, although published accounts of the experiments rarely, if ever, acknowledged the technicians’ contributions.

3. According to the author, servants of seventeenth-century England were excluded from the franchised because of the belief that
(C) the independence of their political judgment would be compromised by their economic dependence on their employers

Servants, meaning wage earners, were excluded from the franchise because they were perceived as ultimately dependent on their wages and thus controlled by the will of their employers.

4. According to the author, the Royal Society of London insisted that scientists abandon the
(D) traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of the English upper class during the seventeenth-century

Leaders of the new Royal Society of London in the 1660s insisted that authentic science depended upon actual experiments performed, observed, and recorded by the scientists themselves. 
Rejecting the traditional contempt for manual operations, these scientists, all members of the English upper class, were not to think themselves demeaned by the mucking about with chemicals, furnaces, and pumps

5. The author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the seventeenth and the twentieth centuries?
(A) Individual insights rather than cooperative endeavors produce most scientific discoveries.

One reason is the historical tendency, which has persisted into the twentieth century, to view scientific discovery as resulting from momentary flashes of individual insight rather than from extended periods of cooperative work by individuals with varying levels of knowledge and skill.

6. Which one of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph?
(D) A question regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph is posed, and several contributing factors are then discussed.

Why were the contributions of these technicians not recognized by their employers? 
then the factors are discussed

7. The author’s discussion of the political significance of the “wage relationship” (Highlighted) serves to
(A) place the failure of seventeenth-century scientists to acknowledge the contributions of their technicians in the large context of relations between workers and their employers in seventeenth-century England

Finally, all of Boyle’s technicians were “servants,” which in seventeenth-century usage meant anyone who worked for pay.

Technicians remained invisible in the political economy of science for the same reasons that underlay servants’ general political exclusion. The technicians’ contribution, their observations and judgment, if acknowledged, would not have been perceived in the larger scientific community as objective because the technicians were dependent on the wages paid to them by their employers.

8. It can be inferred from the passage that “the clamor of seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric” (Highlighted) refers to
(D) assertions by members of the Royal Society of London that scientists themselves should be responsible for obtaining and recording experimental results

Moreover, despite the clamor of seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric commending a hands-on approach, science was still overwhelmingly an activity of the English upper class, and the traditional contempt that genteel society maintained for manual labor was pervasive and deeply rooted.

Leaders of the new Royal Society of London in the 1660s insisted that authentic science depended upon actual experiments performed, observed, and recorded by the scientists themselves.

chibilovespurple · Answer

Got 8/9 correct... more than 18 minutes. Good paragraph for practice.

Summary:

P1. Historians attempt to explain:
the discrepancy between REAL and RHETORIC describing of how RB did scientific work in the lab.

**Leaders of Royal... insisted that scientific work should be done directly by scientists.
Scientists including RB think that doing work directly = good thing.

P2. Rhetoric = so effective that MODERN historians think RB did the research himself.
In reality he had paid technicians to help him and never published about them
RB is not the unique scientist to do so.

P3. Why scientists NEVER credit their technicians?
3 reasons: 
- one reason: historical tendency thinks science = individual achivement
- more over: despite ** above, scientists = upper class, should not work manually
- finally: technicians = servants, dependent on wages paid by their employers --> no political significance, their contributions are mostly ignored by their employers.

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

3. According to the author, servants of seventeenth-century England were excluded from the franchised because of the belief that

Difficulty Level:   650

Explanation

The  “franchise”  and it’s relation to servants is discussed in the middle of  paragraph 3 , where it’s said that servants were excluded from the franchise because, as wage earners,
they were thought to be controlled by their employers. In other words, as  (C)  says, their political independence was thought to be compromised.

(A)  Servants weren’t excluded because their interests were already represented, but because it was believed that they would blindly support the political positions of the employers who paid their wages.

(B), (D), and (E)  are outside the scope. Nowhere does the passage state or imply that servants were inadequately educated  (B) , a polarizing force  (D) , or insufficient contributors to society  (E).

Answer: C

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

1. Which one of the following best summarizes the main idea of the passage?  '

Difficulty Level:   600

Explanation

(C)  covers the gist of the passage. The author explains how much of 17th-century experimental work was performed by technicians, and how that work was denigrated and distrusted for the reasons discussed in  paragraph 3.

(A)  ignores the major concern of the passage: why technicians’ contributions were overlooked. Moreover, the passage never implies that scientific experiments would have been absolutely impossible without the aid of technicians.

(B)  distorts the passage. Lab workers, as salaried employees, belonged to a lower social caste.

(D)  is outside the scope. The passage never discusses the relationship between 20th-century scientists and their technicians.

(E)  focuses on a detail.

Answer: C

Explanation credit: Kaplan LSAT

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

8. It can be inferred from the passage that “the clamor of seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric” (Highlighted) refers to

Difficulty Level:   700

Explanation

As we’ve already seen, the rhetoric of seventeenth-century English science concerned the idea of doing hands-on research. What was the rhetoric? That scientists should conduct, observe, and analyze their own experiments.

(A)  The myth about how discoveries were thought to occur is a general trend discussed by the author, not a subject of seventeenth-century rhetoric.

(B)  Au contraire. Seventeenth-century scientific rhetoric emphasized the importance of doing manual labor in the cause of science.

(C)  Seventeenth-century scientists failed to acknowledge the contributions of their technicians. The scientific rhetoric of the time never addressed that issue.

(E)  Though scientists like Boyle did believe in the search for divine truth in nature, the  “rhetoric”  discussed in the passage concerned only the importance of manual labor in research.

Answer: D

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the “seventeenth-century rhetoric” (Highlighted) would have more accurately described the experimentation performed in Boyle’s laboratory if which one of the following were true?

Difficulty Level:   Hard

Explanation

Seventeenth-century rhetoric about scientific experimentation emphasized the idea that scientists should do their own experiments. Hence, that rhetoric would have more accurately described the work conducted in Boyle’s lab if Boyle himself had actually done his own experiments.

(A)  would contradict seventeenth-century rhetoric by having Boyle admit that he relied on others.

(B)  According to the passage, contempt for manual labor was characteristic of seventeenth century scientists.

(C)  Membership in the Royal Society alone wouldn’t determine whether or not Boyle performed experiments according to the rhetoric of the day.

(D)  focuses on the wrong issue. The rhetoric in question was about scientists performing all their own experiments, not about acknowledging technicians; acknowledging technicians is an issue raised by the author.

Answer: E

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

7. The author’s discussion of the political significance of the “wage relationship” (Highlighted) serves to

Difficulty Level:   700

Explanation

In introducing the political significance of the wage relationship, the author makes the point that workers dependent upon the wages of their employers simply weren’t considered reliable, whether in political judgments or in scientific research. As  (A)  says, the author puts the scientists’ failure to acknowledge the contributions of technicians in the context of general worker-employer relations.

(B)  is outside the scope. The author offers no general thesis about the relationship between scientific discovery and economic conditions.

(C)  goes against the gist of the passage, which is that seventeenth-century scientists relied on technicians to do much more than simply the most menial tasks.

(D)  is also outside the scope. The author doesn’t discuss political or economic changes in seventeenth-century England.

(E)  The author doesn’t tie the wage relationship to the nature of scientific discovery, but to the attitude of scientists towards technicians.

Answer: A

Historians attempting to explain how scientific work was done in the

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Historians attempting to explain how scientific work was done in the

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