There are many different explanations as to why individuals commit

Question

There are many different explanations as to why individuals commit crime. One of the main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on the association among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Thus, in any discussion concerning crime causation, one must contemplate psychological theories.

When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major theories. The first is psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that an individual’s early childhood experience influences the likelihood of committing crimes as an adult. The second is behavioral theory, which maintains that individuals learn from others in the society and ultimately imitate one another; the theory was first proposed by Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) and later behavioral theorists expanded Tarde’s work to include behavior modelling and social learning. The third is cognitive theory, the major premise of which suggests that an individual’s perception and how it is manifested affect the individual’s potential to commit crime.

Also germane to psychological theories are personality and intelligence. One early research in this regard was by Charles Goring (1870-1919) who discovered a relationship between crime and flawed intelligence. Goring examined more than 3,000 convicts in England. It is important to note that Goring found no physical differences between non-criminals and criminals; however, he did find that criminals are more likely, than non-criminals, to be insane, to be unintelligent, and to exhibit poor social behavior. Interestingly, a similar experiment done by Tarde concluded that out of 100 criminals, only one was creative or inventive and the others were prone to imitation.

Combined, these five theories or characteristics – psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, personality, and intelligence – offer appealing insights into why an individual may commit a crime. However, one should not assume that there is only one reason why a person commits crime. Researchers looking for a single explanation should be cautious, because there is no panacea for the problem of crime.   1 
 1. Each of the following behaviors can be explained with the help of psychological theories mentioned in the passage EXCEPT

A. A teenage boy caught in a street fight was found to be socially anxious.
B. A lady attacked her neighbor who resembled the perpetrator of a past crime against her in her girlhood.
c. An elderly gentleman began shoplifting because he believed that the shopkeeper was cheating him.
D. A police officer studied a suspect’s bodily appearance to assess his tendency to commit a crime.
E. A school dropout began selling pirated copies of software because many in his neighborhood did so.

2 
 2. The author’s main point regarding psychological theories of crime causation is that

A. five main psychological theories reveal the main causes of all crimes 
B. crime is a product of five psychological elements
C. there is always more than one psychological reason for a person to commit a crime
D. psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive theories have a significant overlap
E. crime can be caused by many psychological elements, and no single element can explain crime

3 
 3. Regarding behavioral theory, which of the following cannot be inferred from the passage?

A. It includes social learning as its branch.
B. It is based on replicating viewed actions. 
C. It started with Tarde's experiment with 100 criminals.
D. It serves as an example of the mind controlling the body.
E. It overlaps with personality and intelligence theories

4 
 4. Which of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the passage?

A. It mentions two related but less important aspects of crime causation.
B. It points out two aspects of analysis of a criminal’s mind.
C. It points out two aspects of psychology that the earlier stated theories ignore.
D. It discusses the premises of Goring’s research and how Tarde adds to them.
E. It develops one of the earlier stated theories further.

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ExpertsGlobal5 · Answer

Mind-map   
  
  To establish psychological theories as one main explanation of crime causation (Paragraph 1)  
  To describe fundamentals of three major psychological theories (Paragraph 2)  
  To suggest that personality and intelligence are also relevant to psychological theories (Paragraph 3)  
  To caution that no one psychological theory may explain crime causation (Paragraph 4)  
  
  = = = = = = = = = =

1.   Each of the following behaviors can be explained with the help of psychological theories mentioned in the passage EXCEPT

a.   A teenage boy caught in a street fight was found to be socially anxious. 
 b.   A lady attacked her neighbor who resembled the perpetrator of a past crime against her in her girlhood. 
 c.   An elderly gentleman began shoplifting because he believed that the shopkeeper was cheating him. 
  d.     A police officer studied a suspect’s     bodily     appearance to assess his tendency to commit a crime.  
 e.   A school dropout began selling pirated copies of software because many in his neighborhood did so.

Question Type: Inference

Explanation:

The passage mentions several psychological theories and discusses their fundament  al  s. Each answer choice needs to be carefully evaluated to see how it relates to the theories mentioned in the passage.

A. The third paragraph states that criminals are likely to “exhibit poor social behavior”; if the teenage boy mentioned in the answer choice was socially anxious and indulged in a street fight, the boy’s behavior can be explained with the help of the personality aspect stated in the third paragraph. Because this behavior can be explained with the help of a theory mentioned in the passage, the answer choice is incorrect.

B. The second paragraph states that the psychodynamic theory “is centered on the notion that an individual’s early childhood experience influences the likelihood of committing crimes as an adult”; if the lady mentioned in the answer choice was a victim of a crime in her girlhood, and attacked a lookalike of the perpetrator years later, the lady’s behavior can be explained with the help of the psychodynamic theory. Because this behavior can be explained with the help of a theory mentioned in the passage, the answer choice is incorrect.

C. The second paragraph states that a premise of the cognitive theory suggests that “an individual’s perception and how it is manifested affect the individual’s potential to commit crime”; if the elderly gentleman mentioned in the answer choice perceived that the shopkeeper was cheating him, the gentleman’s behavior can be explained with the help of the cognitive theory. Because this behavior can be explained with the help of a theory mentioned in the passage, the answer choice is incorrect.

D.  Correct.  The third paragraph suggests that in the experiment done by Goring, “no physical differences between non-criminals and criminals” were found; if a police officer studied a suspect’s   bodily   appearance to assess his tendency to commit a crime, this behavior cannot be explained according to the personality and intelligence theories mentioned in the third paragraph. The psychodynamic theory would expect the police officer to study a suspect’s childhood events but not   bodily   appearance. The behavioral theory would expect the police officer to study a suspect’s social company and the likelihood of imitation of others in his company but not   bodily   appearance. The cognitive theory would expect the police officer to study a suspect’s perception of others but not   bodily   appearance. So, none of the three theories mentioned in the passage explains the police officer’s behavior. Because this behavior cannot be explained with the help of any theory mentioned in the passage, the answer choice is correct.

E.   The second paragraph states that the behavioral theory suggests that “individuals learn from others in the society and ultimately imitate one another”, implying that crime can be explained as an influence of other crimes around oneself; if the school dropout mentioned in the answer choice began selling pirated copies of software because many in his neighborhood did so, the school dropout’s behavior can be explained with the help of the behavioral theory. Because this behavior can be explained with the help of a theory mentioned in the passage, the answer choice is incorrect.

D is the best choice.   
  
 = = = = = = = = = =
   
  2.   The author’s main point regarding psychological theories of crime causation is that

a.   five main psychological theories reveal the main causes of all crimes  
 b.   crime is a product of five psychological elements 
 c.   there is always more than one psychological reason for a person to commit a crime 
 d.   psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive theories have a significant overlap 
 e.    crime     can be     caused by many psychological elements, and no single element can explain crime

Question Type: Structure

Explanation:   
  
  As the mind-map suggests, the passage starts by stating that psychological theories are one of the main explanations of crime causation, and goes on to describe fundamentals of major theories, before concluding that no one psychological theory may explain crime causation. The core idea in the passage is that crime has many explanations, including psychological ones, and no one psychological theory   may   be adequate in explaining why people commit crime. The answer choices need to be assessed carefully in light of the above summary of the passage.  
  
 A. Trap. The fourth paragraph states that the five theories mentioned in the passage “offer appealing insights” but researchers should not assume that “there is only one reason why a person commits crime” and “there is no panacea for the problem of crime”; although it can be inferred from these references that the five theories may be sufficient in revealing the causes of a crime, it cannot be inferred that they reveal the “main causes” of all crimes; the passage does not categorize causes of a crime as “main” and otherwise; additionally, the term “all crimes” is not qualified in the passage. Moreover, the core idea in the passage is that crime has many explanations, including psychological ones, and no one psychological theory may be adequate in explaining why people commit crime. Incorrect.

B. The first paragraph states that psychological theories “focus on the association among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior”; the passage, in the second and the third paragraphs, goes on to explain five theories; although this discussion makes it clear that many psychological elements contribute to crime, it cannot be inferred that crime is a product of five psychological elements; even if it could be inferred, to make such an inference is not the prime purpose of the passage. The core idea in the passage is that crime has many explanations, including psychological ones, and no one psychological theory may be adequate in explaining why people commit crime. Incorrect.

C. Trap. The fourth paragraph states that researchers should not assume that “there is only one reason why a person commits crime”; this reference implies that there is a possibility of multiple reasons behind a crime; however, it is incorrect to establish that there is always more than one reason for a person to commit a crime; additionally, to establish this idea is not the main point of the passage. The main idea in the passage is that crime has many explanations, including psychological ones, and no one psychological theory may be adequate in explaining why people commit crime. Incorrect.

D. The fourth paragraph states that researchers should not assume that “there is only one reason why a person commits crime”, suggesting that the theories mentioned in the passage can overlap and multiple psychological elements can contribute to crime; however, to highlight this overlap is not the author’s main intention. The main idea in the passage is that crime has many explanations, including psychological ones, and no one psychological theory may be adequate in explaining why people commit crime. Incorrect. 
  
  E.  Correct.  As the mind-map suggests, the passage starts by stating that psychological theories are one of the main explanations of crime causation, and goes on to describe fundamentals of major theories, before concluding that no one psychological theory may explain crime causation; in other words, the author’s main point is that crime   can be   caused by many psychological elements, and no single element can explain crime.

E is the best choice.   
  
  = = = = = = = = = =

3.   Regarding behavioral theory, which of the following cannot be inferred from the passage?

a.   It includes social learning as its branch. 
 b.   It is based on replicating viewed actions.  
  c.     It started with Tarde's experiment with 100 criminals.  
 d.   It serves as an example of the mind controlling the body. 
 e.   It overlaps with personality and intelligence theories

Question Type: Inference

Explanation:

The second and the third paragraphs discuss the behavior theory and an experiment associated with it, respectively. Each answer choice needs to be carefully evaluated to see how it relates to the theory.

A. The second paragraph states that the behavioral theory “was first proposed by Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) and later behavioral theorists expanded Tarde’s work to include behavior modelling and social learning”; it can be inferred that social learning is a later-developed branch of the behavioral theory. Because this answer choice can be inferred from the passage, it is incorrect.

B. The second paragraph mentions that, according to the behavioral theory, “individuals learn from others in the society and ultimately imitate one another”; it is evident that the theory is based on replicating viewed actions. Because this answer choice can be inferred from the passage, it is incorrect.

C.  Correct.  The third paragraph mentions Tarde’s experiment in which he observed that “out of 100 criminals, only one was creative or inventive and the others were prone to imitation”; the second paragraph indicates that the behavioral theory is based on the idea that “individuals learn from others in the society and ultimately imitate one another”; although it is evident that Tarde’s experiment is consistent with the theory, there is no suggestion that it was the experiment that led to the theory. Because this answer choice cannot be inferred from the passage, it is correct.

D. The second paragraph states that “When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major theories” and that behavioral theory is one of them; the word “psychological” makes it clear that the theory serves as an example of the mind controlling the body. Because this answer choice can be inferred from the passage, it is incorrect.

E. The third paragraph, while discussing the results of Goring’s experiment, mentions “a similar experiment done by Tarde”; both experiments provide similar observations; hence, it can be inferred that the behavioral theory by Tarde has some overlap with personality and intelligence theories. Additionally, the observation in Goring’s experiment that criminals are likely “to exhibit poor social behavior” relates to the “social learning” angle in the behavioral theory; this commonality too suggests that the behavioral theory has some overlap with personality and intelligence theories. Because this answer choice can be inferred from the passage, it is incorrect.

C is the best choice.

= = = = = = = = = =
   
  4.   Which of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the passage?

a.   It mentions two related but less important aspects of crime causation. 
  b.     It points out two aspects of analysis of a criminal’s mind.  
 c.   It points out two aspects of psychology that the earlier stated theories ignore. 
 d.   It discusses the premises of Goring’s research and how Tarde adds to them. 
 e.   It develops one of the earlier stated theories further.

Question Type: Structure

B is the best choice.   
  
 = = = = = = = = = =  
  
  Video explanation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SekTdGygKkU

There are many different explanations as to why individuals commit

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There are many different explanations as to why individuals commit

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