Let us not bother whatever this convoluted passage means. Let’s just stick to parallelism and we can see that these weird passages succumb in a moment.
(a) Bleached, enriched flour, almost like sugar's nutritional value,
and much more likely to appear in foods labeled "sugar-free."(b) Bleached, enriched flour is almost more devoid of nutritional value than sugar,
[size=150]and much more than likely to appear in foods labeled "sugar-free."[/size]
(c) Bleached, enriched flour's nutritional value is nearly as low as that of sugar,
and this type of flour is much more likely to appear in foods labeled "sugar-free."(d) Bleached, enriched flour is almost as equivalently low in nutritional value as sugar,
and much more likely than appearing in foods labeled "sugar-free."(e) Sugar's nutritional value is even lower than that of bleached, enriched flour,
and much more likely to appear in foods labeled "sugar-free." This is a compound sentence and the two connected sentences should be ICs. The first is a verbed sentence while In Choice A, B, D and E, the second part is just a phrase and not a clause at all lacking a verb. So throw them out being unparallel. C survives with verbed clauses on both sides of ‘and’