The existence of both racial and sexual discrimination in employment

The existence of both racial and sexual discrimination in employment is well documented, and policy makers and responsible employers are particularly sensitive to the plight of the black female employee on the theory that she is doubly the victim of discrimination. That there exist differences in income between white and black people is clear, but it is not so clear that these differences are solely the result of racial discrimination in employment. The two groups differ in productivity, so basic economics dictates that their incomes will differ.

To obtain a true measure of the effect of racial discrimination in employment it is necessary to adjust the gross black/ white income ratio for these productivity factors. White women in urban areas have a higher educational level than black women and can be expected to receive larger incomes. Moreover, state distribution of residence is important because blacks are over-represented in the South where wage rates are typically lower than elsewhere and where racial differentials in income are greater. Also, black people are over-represented in large cities; incomes of black people would be greater if black people were distributed among cities of different sizes in the same manner as white people.

After standardization for these productivity factors, the income of black urban women is estimated to be between 108 and 125 percent of the income of white women. This indicates that productivity factors more than account for the actual white/black income differential for women. Despite their greater education, white women’s actual median income is only 2 to 5 percent higher than that of black women in the North. Unlike the situation of men, the evidence indicates that the money income of black urban women was as great as, or greater than, that of whites of similar productivity in the North, and probably in the United
States as a whole. For men, however, the adjusted black/white income ratio is approximately 80 percent.

At least two possible hypotheses may explain why the adjustment for productivity more than accounts for the observed income differential for women, whereas the income differential persists for men. First, there may be more discrimination against black men than against black women. The different occupational structures for men and women give some indication why this could be the case, and institutionalized considerations—for example, the effect of unionization in cutting competition— may also contribute. Second, the data are consistent with the hypothesis that the intensity of discrimination against women differs little between white and black people. Therefore, racial discrimination adds little to the effects of existing sex discrimination.

These findings suggest that a black woman does not necessarily suffer relatively more discrimination in the labor market than does a white woman. Rather, for women, the effects of sexual discrimination are so pervasive that the effects of racial discrimination are negligible. Of course, this is not to say that the more generalized racial discrimination of which black women, like black men, are victims does not disadvantage black women in their search for work. After all, one important productivity factor is level of education, and the difference between white and black women on this scale is largely the result of racial discrimination.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain the reasons for the existence of income differentials between men and women
(B) show that racial discrimination against black women in employment is less important than sexual discrimination
(C) explore the ways in which productivity factors such as level of education influence the earning power of black workers
(D) sketch a history of racial and sexual discrimination against black and female workers in the labor market
(E) offer some suggestions as to how public officials and private employers can act to solve the problem of discrimination against black women


2. According to the passage, the gross black/white income ratio is not an accurate measure of discrimination in employment because the gross ratio

(A) fails to include large numbers of black workers who live in the large cities and in the South
(B) must be adjusted to reflect the longer number of hours and greater number of days worked by black employees
(C) represents a subjective interpretation by the statistician of the importance of factors such as educational achievement
(D) is not designed to take account of the effects of the long history of racial discrimination
(E) includes income differences attributable to real economic factors and not to discrimination


3. Which of the following best describes the relationship between the income level of black women and that of black men?

(A) In general, black men earn less money than do black women.
(B) On the average, black women in the South earn less money than do black men in large northern cities.
(C) Productivity factors have a greater dollar value in the case of black women.
(D) Black men have a higher income level than black women because black men have a higher level of education.
(E) The difference between income levels for black and white women is less than that for black and white men.


4. Which of the following best describes the logical relationship between the two hypotheses presented (Text in Blue)?

(A) The two hypotheses may both be true since each phenomenon could contribute to the observed differential.
(B) The two hypotheses are contradictory, and if one is proved to be correct, the other is proved incorrect.
(C) The two hypotheses are dependent on each other, and empirical disconfirmation of the one is disconfirmation of the other.
(D) The two hypotheses are logically connected, so that proof of the first entails the truth of the second.
(E) The two hypotheses are logically connected, so that it is impossible to prove either one to be true without also proving the other to be true.


5. Which of the following best describes the tone of the passage?

(A) Confident and overbearing
(B) Ill-tempered and brash
(C) Objective and critical
(D) Tentative and inconclusive
(E) Hopeful and optimistic


6. If the second hypothesis mentioned by the author (Text in Red) is correct, a general lessening of the discrimination against women should lead to

(A) a higher white/black income ratio for women
(B) a lower white/black income ratio for women
(C) lower female/male income ratio
(D) an increase in the productivity of women
(E) an increase in the level of education of women


7. The author’s attitude toward racial and sexual discrimination in employment can best be described as one of

(A) apology
(B) concern
(C) indifference
(D) indignation
(E) anxiety