About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed

Question

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Passage # 244 Date : 02-Aug-2019
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About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed a law of classical chemistry that relates chemical reaction rate to temperature. According to the Arrhenius equation, chemical reactions are increasingly unlikely to occur as temperatures approach absolute zero, and at absolute zero (zero degrees Kelvin, or minus 273 degrees Celsius) reactions stop. However, recent experimental evidence reveals that although the Arrhenius equation is generally accurate in describing the kind of chemical reaction that occurs at relatively high temperatures, at temperatures closer to zero a quantum-mechanical effect known as tunneling comes into play; this effect accounts for chemical reactions that are forbidden by the principles of classical chemistry. Specifically, entire molecules can “tunnel” through the barriers of repulsive forces from other molecules and chemically react even though these molecules do not have sufficient energy, according to classical chemistry, to overcome the repulsive barrier.

The rate of any chemical reaction, regardless of the temperature at which it takes place, usually depends on a very important characteristic known as its activation energy. Any molecule can be imagined to reside at the bottom of a so-called potential well of energy. A chemical reaction corresponds to the transition of a molecule from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. In classical chemistry, such a transition can be accomplished only by going over the potential barrier between the wells, the height of which remains constant and is called the activation energy of the reaction. In tunneling, the reacting molecules tunnel from the bottom of one to the bottom of another well without having to rise over the barrier between the two wells. Recently researchers have developed the concept of tunneling temperature: the temperature below which tunneling transitions greatly outnumber Arrhenius transitions, and classical mechanics gives way to its quantum counterpart. This tunneling phenomenon at very low temperatures suggested my hypothesis about a cold prehistory of life: the formation of rather complex organic molecules in the deep cold of outer space, where temperatures usually reach only a few degrees Kelvin. Cosmic rays (high-energy protons and other particles) might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules, such as interstellar formaldehyde, in dark clouds of interstellar dust. Afterward complex organic molecules would be formed, slowly but surely, by means of tunneling. After I offered my hypothesis, Hoyle and Wickramasinghe argued that molecules of interstellar formaldehyde have indeed evolved into stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. Their conclusions, although strongly disputed, have generated excitement among investigators such as myself who are proposing that the galactic clouds are the places where the prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred.   1 
 1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with

(A) describing how the principles of classical chemistry were developed
(B) initiating a debate about the kinds of chemical reactions required for the development of life
(C) explaining how current research in chemistry may be related to broader biological concerns
(D) reconciling opposing theories about chemical reactions
(E) clarifying inherent ambiguities in the laws of classical chemistry

2 
 2. According to the passage, classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are alike in which of the following ways?

(A) In both types of reactions, reacting molecules have to rise over the barrier between the two wells.
(B) In both types of reactions, a transition is made from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another.
(C) In neither type of reaction does the height of the barrier between the wells remain constant.
(D) In neither type of reaction does the rate of a chemical reaction depend on its activation energy.
(E) In both types of reactions, reacting molecules are able to go through the barrier between the two wells.

3 
 3. According to the Arrhenius equation as discussed in the passage, which of the following statements about chemical reactions is true?

(A) Chemical reactions are less likely to occur at temperatures close to absolute zero.
(B) In some cases the rate of a chemical reaction is related to temperature and in other cases it is not.
(C) Chemical reactions frequently occur at a few degrees above absolute zero, but they are very unpredictable.
(D) The rate of a chemical reaction depends on many other factors besides temperature.
(E) Chemical reaction rate and temperature are not related.

4 
 4. The author’s attitude toward the theory of a cold pre-history of life can best be described as

(A) neutral
(B) skeptical
(C) mildly positive
(D) very supportive
(E) pointedly critical

5 
 5. The author’s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most weakened if which of the following were true?

(A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules.
(B) Tunneling occurs only in a narrow band of temperatures around zero degrees Kelvin.
(C) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be activated by means other than cosmic rays.
(D) Simple molecules can be synthesized by means of tunneling.
(E) Classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute zero.

6 
 6. Which of the following best describes the hypothesis of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe as it is presented in the passage?

(A) Cosmic rays can directly synthesize complex organic molecules.
(B) The galactic clouds are the places where prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred.
(C) Interstellar formaldehyde can be synthesized by tunneling.
(D) Molecules of interstellar formaldehyde can evolve into complex organic molecules.
(E) Complex organic molecules can be synthesized from stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch.

7 
 7. Which of the following best describes the organization of the first two paragraphs of the passage?

(A) The author cites a basic principle of classical chemistry and then describes the research from which that principle was developed.
(B) The author cites an apparent contradiction to the principles of classical chemistry and then explains the process of a chemical reaction to show there is in fact no contradiction.
(C) The author describes the role of heat in chemical reactions and then offers a detailed explanation of its function.
(D) The author presents a law of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind of chemical reaction that differs from it and then explains the essential difference between the two.
(E) The author presents the fundamental rules of classical chemistry in order to introduce an explanation of a specific chemical reaction.

ssd123 · Accepted Answer

1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with 
(C) explaining how current research in chemistry may be related to broader biological concerns
The author states the research in chemistry in para 1 and in further detail in the second para
The author further states the broader biological concerns towards the end of the second para by stating :
Their conclusions, although strongly disputed, have generated excitement among investigators such as myself who are proposing that the galactic clouds are the places where the prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred.

2. According to the passage, classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are alike in which of the following ways? 
(B) In both types of reactions, a transition is made from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another.
The author states the following in the 2nd para:
1) A chemical reaction corresponds  to the transition of a molecule from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. 
2) In classical chemistry, such a transition can be accomplished only by going over the potential barrier between the wells, the height of which remains constant and is called the activation energy of the reaction.
3) In tunneling, the reacting molecules tunnel  from the bottom of one to the bottom of another well  without having to rise over the barrier between the two wells. 
Thus, from the above, in chemical reactions v/s tunneling reactions, we can understand that in both types of reactions, a transition is made from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another

3. According to the Arrhenius equation as discussed in the passage, which of the following statements about chemical reactions is true? 
(A) Chemical reactions are less likely to occur at temperatures close to absolute zero
The author states in para 1 :
According to the Arrhenius equation, chemical reactions  are increasingly unlikely to occur as temperatures approach absolute zero , and at absolute zero (zero degrees Kelvin, or minus 273 degrees Celsius) reactions stop.

4. The author’s attitude toward the theory of a cold pre-history of life can best be described as 
(A) neutral =. the author shows a positive attitude towards the topic in the last para, hence, incorrect
(B) skeptical => this is the opposite, hence, incorrect
 (C) mildly positive => correct 
(D) very supportive => 'very' is too extreme here and moreover, the author is not supportive of anything, hence incorrect
(E) pointedly critical => this is the opposite, hence, incorrect

5. The author’s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most weakened if which of the following were true? 
(A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules.
The author's hypothesis begins from (i.e it is the first step of his hypothesis):
Cosmic rays (high-energy protons and other particles) might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules, such as interstellar formaldehyde, in dark clouds of interstellar dust.
Therefore, if the cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules, then the authors hypothesis is weakened, as the further steps regarding the formation of complex organic molecules, slowly but surely, by means of tunneling => would not be valid. Hence (A) is correct

6. Which of the following best describes the hypothesis of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe as it is presented in the passage? 
I used the POE method to answer this question:
(A) Cosmic rays can directly synthesize complex organic molecules=> the same is mentioned in the author's hypothesis and moreover it is given in the passage that cosmic rays might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules and not complex. hence incorrect
(B) The galactic clouds are the places where prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred. => the author mentions that the conclusions of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe are strongly disputed and further mentions that it is the investigators like him, who propose that the galactic clouds are the places where prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred. hence, incorrect.
(C) Interstellar formaldehyde can be synthesized by tunneling. => The passage mentions that interstellar formaldehyde are simple molecules, whose synthesis might be triggered by cosmic waves, and not by tunneling. Hence, incorrect
 (D) Molecules of interstellar formaldehyde can evolve into complex organic molecules. => Correct 
(E) Complex organic molecules can be synthesized from stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. => the hypothesis of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe mentions that
molecules of interstellar formaldehyde have indeed evolved into stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. The passage does not mention whether complex organic molecules can be synthesized from stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. Hence, incorrect.

7. Which of the following best describes the organization of the first two paragraphs of the passage? 
(D) The author presents a law of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind of chemical reaction that differs from it and then explains the essential difference between the two.
1) The author mentions a law of classical chemistry in the first para.
2) He then introduces a different kind of chemical reaction (quantum-mechanical effect known as tunneling : this effect accounts for chemical reactions that are forbidden by the principles of classical chemistry)
3) The author mentions the essential difference between the 2 in the first half of the second para.

pathy · Answer

Can you guys post some explanation for this ?

rdrdrd1201 · Answer

Hi Everyone, would like to discuss Question number 5 and discuss why in my thinking B is the answer instead of A, Please correct me --

5. The author’s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most weakened if which of the following were true?

(A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules.
(B) Tunneling occurs only in a narrow band of temperatures around zero degrees Kelvin.
(C) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be activated by means other than cosmic rays.
(D) Simple molecules can be synthesized by means of tunneling.
(E) Classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute zero.

Thequestion here is its most weakened - and if we see the text of the passage concerned:

This tunneling phenomenon at very low temperatures suggested my hypothesis about a cold prehistory of life: the formation of rather complex organic molecules in the deep cold of outer space, where temperatures usually reach only a few degrees Kelvin. Cosmic rays (high-energy protons and other particles) might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules, such as interstellar formaldehyde, in dark clouds of interstellar dust. Afterward complex organic molecules would be formed, slowly but surely, by means of tunneling.

so there are 2 conditions of the theory:
- between few degrees of Kelvin
- Cosmic rays might trigger

Option A: cosmic rays
Option B: narrow band of temperatures around zero degrees Kelvin. ---

the word Might in passage that relates to Option A seems to be is less critical vs the temperature in Option B. Theres a difference between "Narrow band of tempratures around 0 Degrees" vs "where temperatures usually reach only a few degrees Kelvin" in the passage.

please help me on this! I often noted that my error in RC is always narrowed down to 2 options and i always chose the wrong ones

Ritik25 · Answer

Can anyone explain why option E is not correct for question 5? As we understand it, the process of triggering the synthesis of simple molecules from cosmic rays is a classical chemical reaction, as implied by the fact that tunneling occurs only afterward. If classical reactions don't occur at temperatures close to absolute zero, that should be the strongest evidence against the theory, as opposed to only the unlikelihood of the cosmic rays triggering the synthesis of simple molecules.

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Option (E)  could be seen as a potential weakening of the author's hypothesis, since the Arrhenius equation suggests that classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute zero. However, the passage goes on to explain that recent experimental evidence has shown that tunneling can occur at these low temperatures, which allows for the formation of complex organic molecules.  Option (E)  is more of a general statement about classical chemical reactions and does not necessarily contradict the author's hypothesis if tunneling is occurring instead.

About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed

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About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed

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