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When scientists discuss the point in the evolutionary process at which a sense of fairness arose in human beings, one of two theories generally prevails. The first theory holds that a sense of fairness – or, more generally, morality – is a late and mostly intellectual addition to the evolutionary process. In this view morality is defined as a set of rules agreed upon by a society, permitting human beings to “rise above” the raw violence and competition found in “nature.” In certain circles this idea is known as “veneer theory,” because it posits human morality as a thin crust on a violently churning interior.
The second theory, by contrast, does not set nature and morality in direct opposition, but rather holds a sense of fairness to be as much a part of human “nature” as violence and competition. Advocates of this theory most often appeal to the behavior of other primates to argue that humans possess an innate sense of fairness common to other species of a shared evolutionary past. Orangutans, for example, have been observed to throw temper tantrums when teased by being shown an apple they are not allowed to have. Experiments with monkeys offering them two kinds of rewards for performing simple tasks have shown that they will refuse the less-preferred reward if they see their companions receiving the preferred reward for performing the same task.
According to the passage, the common concern of the two theories presented in the passage is:
A. Whether orangutans and other primates possess an innate sense of fairness.
B. Whether a sense of fairness should be considered an earlier or more recent development in the evolution of human beings.
C. Whether a sense of fairness can rightly be called morality.
D. Whether morality is the basis of human social patterns, or is a surface concern.
E. Whether a sense of fairness is genetically predetermined or influenced by community standards.
The second theory, by contrast, does not set nature and morality in direct opposition, but rather holds a sense of fairness to be as much a part of human “nature” as violence and competition. Advocates of this theory most often appeal to the behavior of other primates to argue that humans possess an innate sense of fairness common to other species of a shared evolutionary past. Orangutans, for example, have been observed to throw temper tantrums when teased by being shown an apple they are not allowed to have. Experiments with monkeys offering them two kinds of rewards for performing simple tasks have shown that they will refuse the less-preferred reward if they see their companions receiving the preferred reward for performing the same task.
According to the passage, the common concern of the two theories presented in the passage is:
A. Whether orangutans and other primates possess an innate sense of fairness.
B. Whether a sense of fairness should be considered an earlier or more recent development in the evolution of human beings.
C. Whether a sense of fairness can rightly be called morality.
D. Whether morality is the basis of human social patterns, or is a surface concern.
E. Whether a sense of fairness is genetically predetermined or influenced by community standards.
07 Aug 2026, 06:54
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Explanation
This question requires a determination of which option in the answer choices is common to both theories. The first theory, called veneer theory, posits that a sense of fairness, or morality, is a later development in the evolutionary process that allows humans to rise above raw nature. The position of the second theory is that a sense of fairness developed much earlier, not in humans only, but in primates generally. Both of these concerns are anticipated in the first sentence of the passage.
A. This concern is addressed only by the second theory.
B. Correct. This option correctly identifies the concern set out by the first sentence of the passage. Though the theories differ in their answers to the question, the common concern is the timing of the development of a sense of fairness.
C. The passage assumes, but does not directly address, whether a sense of fairness can aptly be called morality.
D. This concern is addressed explicitly only in the first paragraph.
E. Incorrect as neither of these concepts of genetic predetermination or influence by commmunity standards were not discussed. Both of these concepts are outside of the scope of what the passage discusses.
The correct answer is B
This question requires a determination of which option in the answer choices is common to both theories. The first theory, called veneer theory, posits that a sense of fairness, or morality, is a later development in the evolutionary process that allows humans to rise above raw nature. The position of the second theory is that a sense of fairness developed much earlier, not in humans only, but in primates generally. Both of these concerns are anticipated in the first sentence of the passage.
A. This concern is addressed only by the second theory.
B. Correct. This option correctly identifies the concern set out by the first sentence of the passage. Though the theories differ in their answers to the question, the common concern is the timing of the development of a sense of fairness.
C. The passage assumes, but does not directly address, whether a sense of fairness can aptly be called morality.
D. This concern is addressed explicitly only in the first paragraph.
E. Incorrect as neither of these concepts of genetic predetermination or influence by commmunity standards were not discussed. Both of these concepts are outside of the scope of what the passage discusses.
The correct answer is B
