A recent generation of historians of science, far from portraying

Question

A recent generation of historians of science, far from portraying accepted scientific views as objectively accurate reflections of a natural world, explain the acceptance of such views in terms of the ideological biases of certain influential scientists or the institutional and rhetorical power such scientists wield. As an example of ideological bias, it has been argued that Pasteur rejected the theory of spontaneous generation not because of experimental evidence but because he rejected the materialist ideology implicit in that doctrine. These historians seem to find allies in  certain philosophers of science  who argue that scientific views are not imposed by reality but are free inventions of creative minds, and that scientific claims are never more than brave conjectures, always subject to inevitable future falsification. While these philosophers of science themselves would not be likely to have much truck with the recent historians, it is an easy step from their views to the extremism of the historians.

While this rejection of the traditional belief that scientific views are objective reflections of the world may be fashionable, it is deeply implausible. We now know, for example, that water is made of hydrogen and oxygen and that parents each contribute one-half of their children’s complement of genes. I do not believe  any serious-minded and informed person  can claim that these statements are not factual descriptions of the world or that they will inevitably be falsified.

However, science’s accumulation of lasting truths about the world is not by any means a straightforward matter. We certainly need to get beyond the naive view that the truth will automatically reveal itself to any scientist who looks in the right direction; most often, in fact, a whole series of prior discoveries is needed to tease reality’s truths from experiment and observation. And the philosophers of science mentioned above are quite right to argue that new scientific ideas often correct old ones by indicating errors and imprecision (as, say, Newton’s ideas did to Kepler’s). Nor would I deny that there are interesting questions to be answered about the social processes in which scientific activity is embedded. The persuasive processes by which particular scientific groups establish their experimental results as authoritative are themselves social activities and can be rewardingly studied as such. Indeed, much of the new work in the history of science has been extremely revealing about the institutional interactions and rhetorical devices that help determine whose results achieve prominence.

But one can accept all this without accepting the thesis that natural reality never plays any part at all in determining what scientists believe. What the new historians ought to be showing us is how those doctrines that do in fact fit reality work their way through the complex social processes of scientific activity to eventually receive general scientific acceptance.   1 
 1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following characterizations of scientific truth?

(A) It is often implausible.
(B) It is subject to inevitable falsification.
(C) It is rarely obvious and transparent.
(D) It is rarely discovered by creative processes.
(E) It is less often established by experimentation than by the rhetorical power of scientists.

2 
 2. According to the passage, Kepler’s ideas provide an example of scientific ideas that were

(A) corrected by subsequent inquiries
(B) dependent on a series of prior observations
(C) originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed
(D) established primarily by the force of an individuals rhetorical power
(E) specifically taken up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists

3 
 3. In the third paragraph of the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) presenting conflicting explanations for a phenomenon
(B) suggesting a field for possible future research
(C) qualifying a previously expressed point of view
(D) providing an answer to a theoretical question
(E) attacking the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs

4 
 4. The use of the words “any serious-minded and informed person’ ( Highlighted ) serves which one of the following functions in the context of the passage?

(A) to satirize chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water
(B) to reinforce a previously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science
(C) to suggest the author’s reservations about the “traditional belief” mentioned in line 22
(D) to anticipate objections from someone who would argue for an objectively accurate description of the world
(E) to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not factually describe reality

5 
 5. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between the views of “certain philosophers of science” ( Highlighted ) and those of the recent historians?

(A) These two views are difficult to differentiate.
(B) These two views share some similarities.
(C) The views of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians’ views.
(D) Both views emphasize the rhetorical power of scientists.
(E) The historians explicitly acknowledge that their views are indebted to those of the philosophers.

6 
 6. Which one of the following best characterizes the author’s assessment of the opinions of the new historians of science, as these opinions are presented in the passage?

(A) They lack any credibility.
(B) They themselves can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena.
(C) They are least convincing when they concern the actions of scientific groups.
(D) Although they are gross overstatements, they lead to some valuable insights.
(E) Although they are now popular, they are likely to be refused soon.

7 
 7. In concluding the passage, the author does which one of the following?

(A) offers a prescription
(B) presents a paradox
(C) makes a prediction
(D) concedes an argument
(E) anticipates objections

auradediligodo · Accepted Answer

Hi everyone,

Got 6/7 correct in 14:30 minutes, including 6 minutes to read.

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P1

In paragraph one we are given that some historians don't believe in the objectivity of scientists. Plus there are some philosophers who seem to think the same because they believe that scientific discoveries are derived from the creativity of the scientists' minds and not from reality. Lastly, the author stresses the fact that these 2 groups are hardly similar but they are similarly extremists.

Purpose:  The purpose of this passage is to introduce the historians and to compare them to the philosophers of science

P2

Here the author refutes the historians' point of view and states her reasons why.

Purpose : To disagree with the historians

P3

Here the author highlights some few interesting aspects coming from the philosophers and the historians. For example, it is true that new discoveries undermine old discoveries sometimes (philosophers' view). Or It's also interesting to analyze the social processes involved in the scientific method as well as the rhetorical devices used to achieve prominence.

Purpose : To identify a flaw in the current scientific method and few interesting aspects coming from the historians' and philosophers' views.

P4

In the last paragraph the author suggests that social processes should be studied more

Purpose:  To make a suggestion about what comes next

Main point

The main point is to refute the general thesis of some historians while acknowledging that some of the historians' view are valuable

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1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following characterizations of scientific truth?

Pre-thinking

Inference question

The author believes that what has been done is not sufficient (that is hoping that by being in the right place answers will come).

(A) It is often implausible.
 Cannot be inferred

(B) It is subject to inevitable falsification.
 Cannot be inferred as the author does not agree with this statement

(C)   It is rarely obvious and transparent.
 Correct. The line of reasoning is similar to the following lines: " We certainly need to get beyond the naive view that the truth will automatically reveal itself to any scientist who looks in the right direction; "

(D) It is rarely discovered by creative processes.
 Cannot be inferred

(E) It is less often established by experimentation than by the rhetorical power of scientists.
 Cannot be inferred

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2. According to the passage, Kepler’s ideas provide an example of scientific ideas that were

Pre-thinking

Detail question

"And the philosophers of science mentioned above are quite right to argue that new scientific ideas often correct old ones by indicating errors and imprecision (as, say, Newton’s ideas did to Kepler’s)."

(A)   corrected by subsequent inquiries
 In line with pre-thinking

(B) dependent on a series of prior observations
 Not mentioned

(C) originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed
 Not mentioned

(D) established primarily by the force of an individuals rhetorical power
 Not mentioned

(E) specifically taken up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists
 Not mentioned

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3. In the third paragraph of the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

Pre-thinking

Function question

As mentioned above:

Purpose : To identify a flaw in the current scientific method and few interesting aspects coming from the historians' and philosophers' views.

(A) presenting conflicting explanations for a phenomenon
 No explanations provided

(B) suggesting a field for possible future research
 No suggestion is made

(C) qualifying a previously expressed point of view
 The author indeed gives some credit to the point of view of philosophers/historians

(D) providing an answer to a theoretical question
 No theoretical question is asked

(E) attacking the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs
 The purpose is not to attack

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4. The use of the words “any serious-minded and informed person’ (Highlighted) serves which one of the following functions in the context of the passage?

Pre-thinking

Function question

The purpose is to strengthen the idea that some scientific discoveries cannot be doubted

(A) to satirize chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water
 Out of scope

(B) to reinforce a previously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science
 Inconsistent as those who think that there is no objectivity are the historians and not the philosophers

(C) to suggest the author’s reservations about the “traditional belief” mentioned in line 22
 out of scope

(D) to anticipate objections from someone who would argue for an objectively accurate description of the world
 no objection is anticipated

(E)   to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not factually describe reality
 In line with prethinking

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5. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between the views of “certain philosophers of science” (Highlighted) and those of the recent historians?

Pre-thinking

Inference question

The author admits that something about these 2 groups of people is right in Paragraph 3. The author thinks that it is interesting to analyze the social elements that lead to a scientific discovery for example. She also thinks that these 2 groups are not very alike but they share something (from P1: " While these philosophers of science themselves would not be likely to have much truck with the recent historians, it is an easy step from their views to the extremism of the historians."

(A) These two views are difficult to differentiate.
 This option is discredited in the lat line of P1

(B)   These two views share some similarities.
 In line with prthinking

(C) The views of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians’ views.
 Cannot be inferred

(D) Both views emphasize the rhetorical power of scientists.
 Cannot be inferred

(E) The historians explicitly acknowledge that their views are indebted to those of the philosophers.
 Cannot be inferred

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6. Which one of the following best characterizes the author’s assessment of the opinions of the new historians of science, as these opinions are presented in the passage?

Pre-thinking

Inference question

The author thinks that the ideas of historians are fundamentally biased (P2) but that there is something appealing in their research (P3)

(A) They lack any credibility.
 Credibility is not discussed

(B) They themselves can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena.
 out of scope

(C) They are least convincing when they concern the actions of scientific groups.
 when they are more or less convincing is not discussed

(D)   Although they are gross overstatements, they lead to some valuable insights.
 correct and in line with pre.thinking

(E) Although they are now popular, they are likely to be refused soon.
 Out of scope

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7. In concluding the passage, the author does which one of the following?

Pre-thinking

Detail question

The author gives his idea about what should come next

(A)   offers a prescription
 In line with pre-thinking

(B) presents a paradox
 not mentioned

(C) makes a prediction
 a prediction is different than giving one's opinion

(D) concedes an argument
 Not mentioned

(E) anticipates objections
 no objection anticipated

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It is a good day to be alive!

Cinematiccuisine · Answer

awasthiji ,  ykhanna

If you read the 1st sentence of para 2:
 While this rejection of the traditional belief that scientific views are objective reflections of the world may be fashionable, it is deeply implausible.

This sentence means --> the the act of rejection is implausible (unreasonable / failing to convince). This sentence doesn't refer to scientific truth, it refers to act of rejection.

The first line of para 3:  However, science’s accumulation of lasting  truths  about the world is not by any means a  straightforward  matter.

we can clearly interpret from above line that accumulation of  truth  is not  straightforward  -->this is exactly what the option C states:
(C) It is rarely obvious and transparent.(meaning not  straightforward )

all other choices are not correct OR related to ' truth '.

i hope this clarifies.

---
give kudos even if you disagree

awasthiji · Answer

Can you please explain why C is correct in the first question not the A?

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

4. The use of the words “any serious-minded and informed person’ ( Highlighted ) serves which one of the following functions in the context of the passage?

Explanation

These words are used in the context of an attack on those historians of science who argue that scientific observations aren’t based on objective reality. Hence, the words serve to discredit their view.

(A)   “Earlier notions about the composition of water”  are never mentioned in the passage. The author refers to current beliefs about water’s composition simply in order to make the point that some scientific truths will never be falsified, not to contrast it with outdated notions.

(B)  The author is not critical of philosophers of science.

(C) and (D)  are au contraire choices. The author supports the traditional view of scientific objectivity,  (C) , and is in sympathy with those who hold this view,  (D).

Whenever a question stem cites a line reference, read the lines around that reference carefully. That’s where the answer lies.

Answer: E

Hope it helps

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

6. Which one of the following best characterizes the author’s assessment of the opinions of the new historians of science, as these opinions are presented in the passage?

Explanation

The author labels the historians’ view as  “extremist”  and  “implausible,”  but in  para 3 , particularly the last sentence, he hints that they do have some valid ideas.

(A)  is too extreme. The author does give them a little credit, after all.

(B)   distorts the passage. It’s the process of scientific discovery that the author thinks can be  “rewardingly studied”  as a social phenomenon, not the historians’ view.

(C)  Au contraire: The author thinks that the historians are on to something in their analysis of  “scientific groups.”

(E)  This is a  “half-right, half-wrong”  choice. The author concedes that the historians’ view is popular today  lines 17-19  (While this rejection of the traditional belief that scientific views are objective reflections of the world may be fashionable, it is deeply implausible.), but he doesn’t say that it’ll soon be overturned.

Answer: D

Hope it helps

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following characterizations of scientific truth?

Explanation

(C)  This choice makes essentially the same point as lines 32-39, in which the author asserts that scientific truths eventually emerge out of a complex process of discovery.

(A)  Opposite. According to the author, what is “implausible” is the position of historians of science who think that scientific truths rest on ideological bias rather observed reality.

(B)  is too extreme. While the author feels that many scientific truths are falsifiable  (lines 40-43) , he does cite some truths that he believes will never be falsified  (lines 24-31).

(D)  Another 180 choice.  Lines 32-39  indicate that the author thinks that scientific truths often do emerge from  “creative processes.”

(E)  is the view of the historians of science whom the author attacks.

Answer: C

2. According to the passage, Kepler’s ideas provide an example of scientific ideas that were

Difficulty Level:   550-600

Explanation

In  lines 43-44 , Newton’s updating of Kepler’s ideas is cited as an example of a general scientific phenomenon: newer scientific ideas correcting older ones.

(B)  refers to an unrelated detail in  lines 37-39.

(C)  Just the reverse: Kepler’s ideas were originally thought to be accurate, but later were corrected by Newton.

(D)  refers to the view of historians of science. But the Kepler example comes up in the context of a discussion of the author’s quite different view.

(E)  Although Newton did correct Kepler’s ideas, there is nothing in the passage to indicate that he intentionally set out to do so.

Answer: A

5. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between the views of “certain philosophers of science” (Highlighted) and those of the recent historians?

Difficulty Level:   650

Explanation

In  line 12 , the author describes  “certain philosophers of science”  and recent historians of science as  “allies.”  In  line 20 , he argues that it’s an  “easy step”  from the view of these philosophers to the view of these historians. Thus, the author would contend that their views have elements in common.

(A)  is too extreme. Saying that it’s an  “easy step”  from one view to the other is not the same as saying that they’re  “difficult to differentiate.”

(C)  Just because some philosophers and historians have similar views in certain respects doesn’t mean that the historians’ view stems from that of the philosophers. Indeed, the author argues that the philosophers would not agree with the historians’ general line of thinking  (lines 17-19).

(D)  Only the historians’ view emphasizes  “the rhetorical power of scientists.”

(E)  The passage doesn’t say or suggest that the historians would acknowledge any such thing.

Answer: B

Explanation Credit: Kaplan LSAT

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

7. In concluding the passage, the author does which one of the following?

Explanation

In the last sentence of the passage, the author recommends that historians of science undertake a new research project. In other words, he  “offers a prescription.”

(B)  What paradox?

(C)  What prediction?

(D)  In  paragraph 4 , the author reaffirms his commitment to his view; he doesn’t concede anything to the historians of science.

(E)  What objections?

Answer: A

Explanation source: Kaplan LSAT

A recent generation of historians of science, far from portraying

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A recent generation of historians of science, far from portraying

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