Glaciers that are seated in deep submarine
basins are vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, such as those that occurred over the 20th century, have been rapidly retreating in the last decades.
Option Elimination -
(A)basins are vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, such as those that occurred over the 20th century, have been rapidly retreating - we need AND before have. But the usage of present perfect continuous is correct - present perfect continuous (PPC) is used to describe an action that started in the past (in the last decades), is still ongoing in the present, and may continue into the future.
(B)basins are vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, such as those that occurred over the 20th century, have been rapidly retreated - We need AND. Moreover, the usage of the Present perfect (PP) is wrong. A slight difference between PPC and PP is that the Present Perfect continuous emphasizes the ONGOING nature of an action (in this case they are still retreating) and the Present Perfect focuses on the COMPLETION of an action (in this case, the retreatment hasn't been completed yet). Additionally, why use passive construction? It seems they have been retreated by someone or something. Wrong.
(C)basins are vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, such as those that occurred over the 20th century, and are rapidly retreating - usage of ARE is wrong, as explained in A. We need Present Perfect Continuous to describe an action that started in the past (in the last decades), is still ongoing in the present, and may continue into the future.
(D)basins, vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, occurred over the 20th century and have been rapidly retreating - before AND there is no verb. Its a fragment. Fragment AND Clause - wrong parallelism.
(E)basins are vulnerable to small changes in ocean temperature, such as those that occurred over the 20th century, and have been rapidly retreating - perfect.