In strongly territorial birds such as the indigo bunting, song is the

Question

New RC from 1988 Official Guide

In strongly territorial birds such as the indigo bunting, song is the main mechanism for securing, defining, and defending an adequate breeding area. When population density is high, only the strongest males can retain a suitable area. The weakest males do not breed or are forced to nest on poor or marginal territories.

During the breeding season, the male indigo bunting sings in his territory; each song lasts two or three seconds with a very short pause between songs. Melodic and rhythmic characteristics are produced by rapid changes in sound frequency and some regularity of silent periods between sounds. These modulated sounds form recognizable units, called figures, each of which is reproduced again and again with remarkable consistency. Despite the large frequency range of these sounds and the rapid frequency changes that the bird makes, the number of figures is very limited. Further, although we found some unique figures in different geographical populations, more than 90 percent of all the figures of birds from different regions are alike. Indigo bunting figures are extremely stable on a geo- graphic basis. In our studies of isolated buntings we found that male indigo buntings are capable of singing many more types of figures than they usually do. Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.

Realizing that the ability to distinguish the songs of one species from those of another could be an important factor in the evolution of the figures, we tested species recognition of a song. When we played a tape recording of a lazuli bunting or a painted bunting, male indigo buntings did not respond, even when a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder. Playing an indigo bunting song, however, usually brought an immediate response, making it clear that a male indigo bunting can readily distinguish songs of its own species from those of other species.

The role of the song figures in intraspecies recognition was then examined . We created experimental songs composed of new figures by playing a normal song backwards, which changed the detailed forms of the figures without altering frequency ranges or gross temporal features. Since the male indigos gave almost a full response to the backward song, we concluded that a wide range of figure shapes can evoke positive responses. It seems likely, therefore, that a specific configuration is not essential for intraspecies recognition' but it is clear that song figures must conform to a particular frequency range, must be within narrow limits of duration, and must be spaced at particular intervals.

There is evidence that new figures may arise within a population through a slow process of Change and selection. This variety is probably a valuable adapta- tion for survival: if every bird sang only a few types of figures, in dense woods or underbrush a female might have difficulty recognizing her mate's song, and a male might not be able to distinguish a neighbor from a stranger. Our studies led us to conclude that there must be a balance between song stability and conservatism, which lead to clear-cut species recognition, and song variation which leads to individual recognition.   1 
 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) raise new issues
(B) explain an enigma
(C) refute misconceptions
(D) reconcile differing theories
(E) analyze a phenomenon

2 
 2. According to the passage, which of the following is true about the number and general nature of figures sung by the indigo bunting?

(A) They are established at birth.
(B) They evolve slowly as the bird learns.
(C) They are learned from other indigo buntings.
(D) They develop after the bird has been forced onto marginal breeding areas.
(E) They gradually develop through contact with prospective mates.

3 
 3. It can be inferred that the investigation that determined the similarity among more than 90 percent of all the figures produced by birds living in different regions was undertaken to answer which of the following questions? 
I. How much variation, if any, is there in the figure types produced by indigo buntings in different locales?
II. Do local populations of indigo buntings develop their own dialects of figure types?
III . Do figure similarities among indigo buntings decline with increasing geographic separation?

(A) II only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only 
(E) I, II, and III

4 
 4. It can be inferred from the passage that the existence of only a limited number of indigo bunting figures serves primarily to

(A) ensure species survival by increasing competition among the fittest males for the females
(B) increase population density by eliminating ambiguity in the figures to which the females must respond
(C) maintain the integrity of the species by restricting the degree of figure variation and change
(D) enhances species recognition by decreasing the number of figure patterns to which the bird must respond
(E) avoid confusion between species by clearly demarcating the figure patterns of each species

5 
 5. It can be inferred that a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder that played the songs of different species in order to try to

(A) simulate the conditions in nature
(B) rule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition
(C) supply an additional clue to species recognition for the indigo bunting
(D) provide data on the habits of bunting species other than the indigo bunting
(E) confound the indigo buntings in the experiment

6 
 6. According to the passage , the authors played a normal indigo bunting song backwards in order to determine which of the following?

(A) What are the limits of the frequency range that will provide recognition by the indigo bunting?
(B) What is the time duration necessary for recognition by the indigo bunting?
(C) How specific must a figure shape be for it to be recognized by the indigo bunting? 
(D) How does variation in the pacing of song figures affect the indigo bunting's recognition of the figures ?
(E) Is the indigo bunting responding to cues other than those in the song figures ?

7 
 7. According to the passage , the indigo buntings' songs function in which of the following ways? 
I. To delineate a breeding area 
II. To defend a breeding area
III. To identify the birds to their mates

(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and III only 
(D) II and III only 
(E) I, II, and III

Nikhil · Accepted Answer

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) raise new issues
(B) explain an enigma
(C) refute misconceptions
(D) reconcile differing theories
 (E) analyze a phenomenon

The best answer is E. When asked to identify the primary purpose of a passage, you should select the answer choice that states what the passage as a whole achieves. The passage is primarily a discussion of a natural phenomenon, the song of the male indigo bunting. This discussion focuses on the components, form, and function of the song. Such a discussion can correctly be called an analysis, and E presents such a choice. There is no evidence in the passage that suggests that the issues presented are new (choice A), or that any of the matters discussed are enigmas or misconceptions (choices B and C). The discussion is not primarily a presentation of theory but of empirical evidence and observed phenomena; thus, choice D is not correct.

2. According to the passage, which of the following is true about the number and general nature of figures sung by the indigo bunting?

(A) They are established at birth.
(B) They evolve slowly as the bird learns.
 (C) They are learned from other indigo buntings. 
(D) They develop after the bird has been forced onto marginal breeding areas.
(E) They gradually develop through contact with prospective mates.

The best answer is C. To answer this question, you should examine each of {he choices to determine which makes an accurate statement, based on evidence in the passage, about the number and general nature of the figures sung by the indigo bunting. In the second paragraph, the author concludes that male indigo buntings in a natural environment copy figures from other buntings, a fact that explains why the number and general nature of figures remain limited. Thus, choice C is true and is the intended answer. The other choices are plausible statements, but they are not asserted in the passage.

3. It can be inferred that the investigation that determined the similarity among more than 90 percent of all the figures produced by birds living in different regions was undertaken to answer which of the following questions?
I. How much variation, if any, is there in the figure types produced by indigo buntings in different locales?
II. Do local populations of indigo buntings develop their own dialects of figure types?
III. Do figure similarities among indigo buntings decline with increasing geographic separation?

(A) II only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only 
 (E) I, II, and III

The best answer is E. The format of this question requires you to evaluate each of the questions designated with Roman numerals separately and carefully. In this question, you must infer from the passage what information the investigation discussed in the s·econd paragraph was designed to obtain. According to the passage, the investigation yielded information that permitted researchers to draw conclusions about variation in figure types, about unique figures among birds, and about the effects of increasing geographic separation. The second paragraph describes some of the strategies used by the investigators to obtain precisely this information. I, II, and III are all questions that the investigators set out to explore, and E is the correct answer.

4. It can be inferred from the passage that the existence of only a limited number of indigo bunting figures serves primarily to

(A) ensure species survival by increasing competition among the fittest males for the females
(B) increase population density by eliminating ambiguity in the figures to which the females must respond
(C) maintain the integrity of the species by restricting the degree of figure variation and change
 (D) enhances spices recognition by decreasing the number of figure patterns to which the bird must respond 
(E) avoid confusion between species by clearly demarcating the figure patterns of each species

The best answer is D. This question requires you to determine why the number of indigo bunting figures is as limited as it is. In order to make this determination, it is necessary to consider several facts presented in the passage and their relationship to each other. The third paragraph indicates that the songs serve as a means of recognition for members of the same species. The fourth paragraph discusses the strict limitations on the ways in which figures are produced. The last paragraph indicates that "song stability and conservatism," that is, limits to the numbers of figures and variations, are essential for clear-cut species recognition. Choice D is a statement of that idea.

5. It can be inferred that a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder that played the songs of different species in order to try to

(A) simulate the conditions in nature
 (B) rule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition 
(C) supply an additional clue to species recognition for the indigo bunting
(D) provide data on the habits of bunting species other than the indigo bunting
(E) confound the indigo buntings in the experiment

The best answer is B. This question requires you to determine the reason for the researcher's use of a dummy male indigo bunting. The passage indicates that the sight of the dummy was not enough to cause subject male indigo buntings to react to songs of lazuli and painted buntings. This result suggests that the indigo bunting identifies others of the species on the basis of the song rather than sight. The fact that the researchers performed an additional check in which an indigo bunting song, did, in fact, provoke responses from the subject indigos further rules out visual clues.

6. According to the passage, the authors played a normal indigo bunting song backwards in order to determine which of the following?

(A) What are the limits of the frequency range that will provide recognition by the indigo bunting?
(B) What is the time duration necessary for recognition by the indigo bunting?
 (C) How specific must a figure shape be for it to be recognized by the indigo bunting?  
(D) How does variation in the pacing of song figures affect the indigo bunting's recognition of the figures ?
(E) Is the indigo bunting responding to cues other than those in the song figures ?

The best answer is C. The fourth paragraph states that the researchers played songs backward, a technique that changed the forms of the figures without changing frequency ranges or gross temporal features. Since figure shape, therefore, is the only element to be altered, the results of the experiment would give information about the role of figure shape in species recognition. Choice C is the only choice that addresses the question of figure shapes, and, in fact, the fourth paragraph indicates that the experiment was designed to determine what changes in detail would fail to elicit responses from the subject buntings.

7. According to the passage, the indigo buntings' songs function in which of the following ways?
I. To delineate a breeding area 
II. To defend a breeding area
III. To identify the birds to their mates

(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and III only 
(D) II and III only 
 (E) I, II, and III

The best answer is E. The format of this question requires you to evaluate each of the phrases designated with Roman numerals separately and carefully. The question requires you to look up information explicitly stated in the passage. The first sentence in the first paragraph states that in birds such as the indigo bunting, "song is the main mechanism for securing, defining, and defending an adequate breeding area." I and II are restatements of parts of this idea. The last paragraph indicates that songs serve the function of identification within the species and that females can differentiate the songs of their mates from those of other males, thus indicating that III is also correct; therefore, E (I, II, and III) is the best choice.

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 4 
 
This question asks us to find the answer that best explains why the indigo bunting only uses a limited number of figures.

Since this is an inference question, we're not going to see the explanation stated outright in the passage but there are a few sections that can help us:

The third paragraph tells us that when the figure from another species was played,  "male indigo buntings did not respond, even when a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder."  
 However, playing an indigo bunting figure  "usually brought an immediate response, making it clear that a male indigo bunting can readily distinguish songs of its own species from those of other species."  
 Finally, the end of the passage tells us  "Our studies led us to conclude that there must be a balance between song stability and conservatism, which lead to clear-cut species recognition" .

These can all help us determine which is the correct answer to this question, let's take a look at the answer choices:
 
There is no mention in the passage of the  limited number of figures  increasing competition among the males. (A) cannot be the correct answer.

We're told in the first paragraph about the  effects  of high population density:  "The weakest males do not breed or are forced to nest on poor or marginal territories."  BUT this does not have any link to eliminating ambiguity in the figures to which the females must respond.

Later in the passage, we're told that:

if every bird sang only a few types of figures, in dense woods or underbrush a female might have difficulty recognizing her mate's song

So there must be some attempt by the males to differentiate their songs somewhat so the females can recognize their mate's song and there will be some ambiguity in these songs. For these reasons, (B) is not the correct answer.

We're told in the final paragraph that  "new figures may arise within a population through a slow process of Change and selection,"  and that this process was a  "valuable adaptation for survival."

From this, we cannot say that restricting the degree of figure variation and change will maintain the integrity of the species -- (C) is out.

From the parts of the passage quoted above, we know an indigo bunting will not respond if the song from another species is played but will respond immediately if an indigo bunting figure is played.

Also, the final sentence told us that  "song stability and conservatism"  led to  "clear-cut species recognition."

From these, we can infer that the limited number of figures could help the indigo bunting differentiate between bird species through their songs. (D) looks good but let's take a look at (E) before confirming it as the answer.

The fourth paragraph talks about the researchers playing an indigo bunting figure backwards and receiving a positive response. They concluded  "that a specific configuration is not essential for intraspecies recognition'" .

From this, we can see the limited number of figures are not primarily used for  clearly demarcating  the figure patterns of each species. Variations in the figures will still receive a response but that these figures must  "conform to a particular frequency range, must be within narrow limits of duration, and must be spaced at particular intervals."

This means (E) is not the answer to this question, leaving us with (D) as the only answer we haven't ruled out -- (D) is the answer to this question.

I hope that helps!

aragonn · Answer

P1 - importance of song for a bird. breeding habit.
P2 - diff songs, effects.
P3 - an experiment on song recognition.
p4 - further experiment to understand interval and sequence.
P5 - species recognition, and song variation which leads to individual recognition.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) raise new issues - for sure no new issues raised.
(B) explain an enigma - enigma means something puzzling. I think nothing is puzzling here. 
(C) refute misconceptions - no misconceptions.
(D) reconcile differing theories - no different theories given.
(E) analyze a phenomenon - yes analyze a phenomenon is correct. covering maximum of passage. in the end they have concluded too. which is not covered here. either way this one is best choice.

---------------------------------------

2. According to the passage, which of the following is true about the number and general nature of figures sung by the indigo bunting?

Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.

(C) They are learned from other indigo buntings.

---------------------------------------------

3. It can be inferred that the investigation that determined the similarity among more than 90 percent of all the figures produced by birds living in different regions was undertaken to answer which of the following questions?
I. How much variation, if any, is there in the figure types produced by indigo buntings in different locales? - Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.
II. Do local populations of indigo buntings devel- op their own dialects of figure types? - Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.
III . Do figure similarities among indigo buntings decline with increasing geographic separation? - more than 90 percent of all the figures of birds from different regions are alike.

(A) II only
(B) III only
(C) IandIIonly
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III - correct

Despite the large frequency range of these sounds and the rapid frequency changes that the bird makes, the number of figures is very limited. Further, although we found some unique figures in different geographical populations, more than 90 percent of all the figures of birds from different regions are alike. Indigo bunting figures are extremely stable on a geo- graphic basis. In our studies of isolated buntings we found that male indigo buntings are capable of singing many more types of figures than they usually do. Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.

--------------------------------------------------------

4. It can be inferred from the passage that the existence of only a limited number of indigo bunting figures serves primarily to

In our studies of isolated buntings we found that male indigo buntings are capable of singing many more types of figures than they usually do. Thus, it would seem that they copy their figures from other buntings they hear singing.
 
(D) enhance s pecies recognition by decreas ing the number of figure patterns to which the bird must respond

----------------------------------------------------------

5. It can be inferred that a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder that played the songs of different species in order to try to

(B) r ule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition --- Has to be this ... as till the point not keeping the dummy, it was not able to recognize .

---------------------------------------------------

6. According to the pas sage , the authors played a normal indigo bunting song backwards in order to determine which of the following?

detailed forms of the figures without altering frequency ranges or gross temporal features.

It seems likely, therefore, that a specific configuration is not essential for intraspecies recognition' but it is clear that song figures must conform to a particular frequency range, must be within narrow limits of duration, and must be spaced at particular intervals.

(C) How specific must a figure shape be for it to be recognized by the indigo bunting?

-----------------------------------------------------

7. According to the passage , the indigo buntings' songs function in which of the following ways?
I. To delineate a breeding area
II. To defend a breeding area
III. To identify the birds to their mates

(A) 1only
(B) II only
(C) I and III only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III

straight all 3 - E.

Ilhomjon98 · Answer

Hi, Gmatninja
Could you help me with question 4.

I think that the existence of only a limited number of indigo bunting figures serves primarily to do something negative because the passage says that This variety is probably a valuable adaptation for survival: if every bird sang only a few types of figures, in dense woods or underbrush a female might have difficulty recognizing her mate's song, and a male might not be able to distinguish a neighbor from a stranger.

I guess there should be a great number of indigo bunting figures so that the birds do not get confused.
How is D the correct answer.
Thank you in advance!

krittapat · Answer

GMATNinja   egmat   VeritasKarishma   mikemcgarry 
I would like you to help explain what's the difference between choice C and D in question 6. I still couldn't understand why D is a wrong one.
Thank you for your help.

GMATNinja · Answer

Questions 6 
 
The prompt asks about the question the author is trying to answer by playing normal indigo bunting songs backwards. This experiment is described in the fourth paragraph. With that in mind, let’s take a look at (D):

The four paragraph notes that a normal song was played backwards, but did this vary the pacing? According to the author, playing the songs backwards did NOT alter “gross temporal features.” Temporal refers to things which relate to time, so presumably the pacing was not altered. For that reason, we can eliminate (D).

And here’s (C):

As we said above, the fourth paragraph describes the experiment in which indigo bunting songs are played backwards. The final sentence of that paragraph describes the results of that experiment. It says:

It seems likely, therefore, that a specific configuration is not essential for intraspecies recognition, but it is clear that song figures must conform to a particular frequency range, must be within narrow limits of duration, and must be spaced at particular intervals.

So, what question did the answer? It told us exactly how specific a figure shape must be for intraspecies recognition. This is exactly what (C) describes, so it is the best answer choice.

I hope that helps!

SushmithaT · Answer

what is the max. time we should spend to solve this passage?

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  SushmithaT . If your test were tomorrow, I would suggest you look to spend no more than about 2 minutes per question  on average . This does not mean attempt to speed-read your way to an answer on the first question in no more than 2 minutes. Also, the modern test looks different from these old paper tests (from which the questions in a 1980s OG would have derived). First, you will not see a 7-question set like this, and second, certain question types—such as 3 and 7, with the three statements you have to assess—are more GRE®-like than GMAT™-like (which makes sense, given that ETS, the company that creates GRE® questions, formerly wrote GMAT™ questions as well). If you are just practicing and your test is some way off, I would urge you to spend as much time as you need to reinforce your approach to the task: read with purpose, focusing on authorial intent, and look to find textual evidence to support your answers or disqualify others. When you build and strengthen solid test-taking habits, your timing will come down as a result, and you will not have to worry about the issue as much. Finally, if you have trouble reading this sort of passage, you might want to increase your exposure to high-quality material that is written in English. Major newspapers and journals can be a great way to gain such exposure—e.g.,  The New York Times  or  The Atlantic .

Happy studies.

- Andrew

vv65 · Answer

They certainly are more GRE-like, and my GMAT exam (in 2018) had a question like this. It was one of the very few surprises in the exam.

Posted from my mobile device

AndrewN · Answer

Thank you for sharing this detail about your exam experience,  vv65 , and in 2018 to boot. It appears as if I need to revise my position on these questions with Roman numerals, even if I remain not so enamored of them.

- Andrew

Nikita45 · Answer

Hi  GMATNinja ,
Can you please explain question no. 5? 
I marked option e because i thought it was to confound indigo bunting.
Thanks!

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 5 
 
Question 5 asks why experimenters put a fake male indigo bunting near a tape recorder playing songs.

This experiment is discussed in paragraph 3. There, the author explains that the point of the experiment is to test the ability of a species to detect songs from other members of the  same  species. Can indigo buntings distinguish the song of another indigo bunting from the song of a different kind of bird?

Yes, it turns out that they can. Even when the experimenters place a fake indigo bunting in the area, members of the same species can still tell that the song comes from a different species.

Since the point of the entire experiment was about song recognition, the fake indigo bunting must play a role in that overall point. What it shows is that the indigo bunting is NOT just reacting to visual cues -- it is in fact reacting to the song itself.

So the point of including the fake indigo bunting is to rule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition, as stated in (B).

Here's (E) again:

The experimenters' goal was not to confound the indigo buntings -- the scientists weren't sitting there, rubbing their hands and getting excited about how confused the birds were going to be. (That would be kinda mean, no?) Instead, the goal was to find out how and whether indigo buntings can recognize songs from other indigo buntings.

Because the experimenters weren't just trying to confuse the birds, (E) doesn't capture the purpose of the fake indigo bunting.

I hope that helps!

danymasri98 · Answer

For question 1, why is B incorrect?
Can we not assume that the fact that the indigo's songs are limited, despite having the capability to sing in different ways, an enigma?

MartyTargetTestPrep 
 AndrewN 
 DmitryFarber 
 KarishmaB 
 GMATNinja

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  danymasri98 . Even if we could make a case that such an enigma were present, we cannot lose sight of the question itself:

Is the author of the passage  primarily concerned with , to use your words, the puzzle that the indigo bunting has a limited repertoire of songs, even though it can sing in different ways? A quick scan of just the topic   sentence of some of the body paragraphs suggests otherwise:

Notice how paragraph three directly mentions different  species , while paragraph five discusses  a population  of birds in a general way. If the primary purpose were, in fact, to explain the enigma in question, then we would probably want a stronger commitment by the author in the final paragraph than  may arise ,  this variety is  probably  a valuable adaptation ,  a female  might  have difficulty , and so on. If you want something explained, such as this very question, would you be satisfied with a so-called explanation that kept using  maybe  or  perhaps ? You would probably seek a second opinion.

Meanwhile, answer choice (E) uses vague, cautious language that is often (not always) a hallmark of a correct answer to this type of question:  analyze a phenomenon . As long as the passage describes something in detail, it is hard to argue against  analyze . Here,  phenomenon  can be thought of as something neutral. In fact,  the first definition of the word  on Dictionary.com and its accompanying sentence are fitting:

So, answer choice (E) is effectively saying that the author is interested in exploring something that has been observed. That is really hard to dispute, given the non-committal language, making it a pretty safe bet.

Thank you for thinking to ask, and good luck with your studies.

- Andrew

danymasri98 · Answer

Thank you for the constructive and elaborate reply  AndrewN .
It all makes sense now.

walterwhite756 · Answer

GMATNinja   egmat  @VeritasKarishma  mikemcgarry   AndrewN   MartyTargetTestPrep   KarishmaB

Could you clarify why C is wrong for Question 5.

To me, both B and C seem correct. I chose C since B specifically says about RULING OUT visible cues. What if there were any other visible cues still present? C on the other hand gives a general statement which holds true as well that DUMMY BIRD experiment simply gave an additional clue for species reognition.

Thanks.

KarishmaB · Answer

Certainly a tricky question.

5. It can be inferred that a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder that played the songs of different species in order to try to

(A) simulate the conditions in nature
(B) rule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition
(C) supply an additional clue to species recognition for the indigo bunting
(D) provide data on the habits of bunting species other than the indigo bunting
(E) confound the indigo buntings in the experiment

Here is the relevant part:

we tested species recognition of a song. When we played a tape recording of a lazuli bunting or a painted bunting, male indigo buntings did not respond, even when a dummy of a male indigo bunting was placed near the tape recorder. Playing an indigo bunting song, however, usually brought an immediate response, making it clear that a male indigo bunting can readily distinguish songs of its own species from those of other species.

The researchers wanted to test 'species recognition of a song' which means whether indigo bunting recognised their own species song.

When they played other species sings, the indigo did not respond. (they recognised that the species was not theirs through the song)
Then a dummy of an indigo was placed while playing other species' songs. (to see whether visual cues have a role to play in species recognition)
They found out that visual clues do not play a part.

So they found out that indigo buntings recognise that it is not their own species through the song.

(B) rule out visual cues as a factor in species recognition 
Makes sense. They wanted to rule out that visual clues play a part in species recognition.

(C) supply an additional clue to species recognition for the indigo bunting

"an additional clue" would make sense in case the dummy was placed while playing indigo species song. Then we could say that they played the indigo song and put in an additional clue by putting a dummy of an indigo male there to help other indigo males recognise their own species. But that is not the case.
Hence (C) is not correct.

Answer (B)

VerbalBot · Answer

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In strongly territorial birds such as the indigo bunting, song is the

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In strongly territorial birds such as the indigo bunting, song is the

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