In this appeal of his criminal conviction, the defendant challenges

Passage A

In this appeal of his criminal conviction, the
defendant challenges the fingerprint evidence
used against him at trial, claiming that fingerprint
identification theory has not been adequately tested.
(5) He cites the inability of the fingerprint examiner who
incriminated him at trial to name any studies establishing
that no two persons have identical fingerprints.

Summary: Defendant argues that fingerprint evidence is not reliable. As per him there is no study which proves 2 person cannot have same fingerprint.

The defendant claims that there are no established
error rates revealing how often fingerprint examiners
(10) incorrectly identify a fingerprint as a particular
person's, and asserts that fingerprint examiners lack
uniform, objective standards. He cites testimony given by
the fingerprint examiner at trial that there is no generally
accepted standard regarding the number of "points of
(15) identification" required for a positive identification.
Summary: As per defendant, there are no error rates present of fingerprint examiners & they lack uniform standard test.

Although fingerprint identification has not
attained the status of scientific law, it has been used
in criminal trials for 100 years, and experts have long
concurred about its reliability. While further testing
(20) and the development of even more consistent
standards may be desirable, this court sees no reason
to reject outright a form of evidence that has so ably
withstood the test of time.
Summary: Fingerprint examination is used in criminal trials for more than 100 years hence courts sees no reason to reject it.

While it may be true that different agencies
(25) require different degrees of correlation before
permitting a positive identification, fingerprint
examiners are held to a consistent "points and
characteristics" approach to identification. As the
fingerprint expert testified at the defendant's trial,
(30) examiners are regularly subjected to testing and
proficiency requirements, and uniform standards have
been established through professional training and
peer review. The trial court below was therefore within
its discretion in crediting testimony that fingerprint
(35) identification has an exceedingly low error rate.
Summary: Different agencies may require different correlation before coming to a conclusion of positive match, they generally follow consistent approach. Hence trial court is right to consider fingerprint identification having low error rate.

Passage B

Fingerprint examiners lack objective standards for
evaluating whether two prints "match." There is
simply no consensus about what constitutes a sufficient
basis for identification. Some examiners use a "point-
(40) counting" method that entails counting the number of
similar "ridge" characteristics on prints, but there is no
fixed requirement about how many points of similarity
are needed, and local practices vary. Others reject
point counting for a more holistic approach. Either
(45) way, there is no generally agreed-on standard for
determining precisely when to declare a match.
Summary: Fingerprint examiners does not have standardised tests to evaluate a match. Some of them use points which are getting match other reject it.

Although we know that different individuals can
share certain ridge characteristics, the chance of two
individuals sharing any given number of identifying
(50) characteristics is unknown. How likely is it that two
people could have four points of resemblance, or five,
or eight? Moreover, fingerprints used in forensic
identification are typically partial and smudged. Are
the odds that two partial prints from different people
(55) will match one in a thousand, one in a million, or one
in a billion? No fingerprint examiner can answer such
questions decisively, yet the answers are critical to
evaluating the value of fingerprint evidence.
Summary: Two individuals can share similar points or ridge but the chances are not known. finger prints in forensic are mostly partial or smudged. The odds of two people having partial match is not known.

The error rate for fingerprint identification in
(60) actual practice has received little systematic study.
How often do fingerprint examiners mistakenly
declare a match? Although some proficiency tests
show examiners making few or no errors, these tests
have been criticized as lax; a more rigorous test
(65) showed a 34 percent rate of erroneous identification.

Summary: The error rate for finger print identitfication does not get much attention.


1. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of passage B?

(A) Criminal defendants do not always have a full and fair opportunity to challenge faulty fingerprint evidence when it is used against them at trial.
(B) Fingerprint evidence has been shown to be too unreliable for use in criminal trials.
(C) The error rate for fingerprint identification is significantly higher than is generally acknowledged.
(D) There are a number of fundamental problems in the field of fingerprint identification as it is currently practiced.
Passage B talks about how fingerprint examination is not having standard tests, its error rates possibility of 2 individuals with partial match etct which are fundamental problems.
(E) There is a growing consensus within the legal community that fingerprint evidence is often unreliable.


2. The authors would be most likely to disagree about

(A) whether uniformity in the training of fingerprint examiners is desirable
(B) the likelihood that a fingerprint examiner will incorrect!y declare a match in a given criminal case
Although some proficiency tests
show examiners making few or no errors, these tests
have been criticized as lax; a more rigorous test
showed a 34 percent rate of erroneous identification.

Author is disagreeing that examiners will make very less error.
(C) whether fingerprint identification should be accorded the status of scientific law
(D) the relative merits of the point-counting and holistic methods of fingerprint identification
(E) whether different agencies vary in the degree of correlation they require for examiners to declare a match

3. It can be inferred that the author of passage A is

(A) a judge presiding over an appeal of a criminal conviction
In this appeal of his criminal conviction,
The defendant claims that there are no established,
this court sees no reason to reject outright a form of evidence that has so ably withstood the test of time.
The trial court below was therefore within its discretion,
(B) a defense attorney arguing an appeal of a client's criminal conviction
(C) a prosecutor arguing for the affirmation of a guilty verdict
(D) a professor of law lecturing to a criminal law class
(E) an academic presenting a paper to a group of legal scholars

4. Each passage discusses the relationship between the reliability of the practice of fingerprint identification and which one of the following?

(A) the ability of a criminal defendant to expose weaknesses in the prosecution's case
(B) the personal integrity of individual fingerprint examiners
(C) differences in the identification practices used by various fingerprint examiners
From passage A
fingerprint examiners lack uniform, objective standards.
there is no generally accepted standard regarding the number of "points of identification" required for a positive identification.

Passage B
Fingerprint examiners lack objective standards for
evaluating whether two prints "match."

(D) the partial or smudged prints that are typically used as evidence in criminal cases
(E) use of the holistic approach to fingerprint identification

5. Which one of the following principles underlies the arguments in both passages?

(A) Courts should be extremely reluctant to reject those forms of evidence that have withstood the test of time.
(B) Defendants should have the right to challenge forms of evidence whose reliability has not been scientifically proven.
(C) To evaluate the value of fingerprint evidence, one must know how likely it is that partial prints from two different people would match.
(D) Fingerprint identification should not be considered to have a low error rate unless rigorously conducted tests have shown this to be so.
(E) Fingerprint examiners must follow objective standards if fingerprint identification is to be reliable
This is discussed in both passages.

6. Both passages allude to a method of fingerprint identification in which examiners

(A) rely on a holistic impression of how similar two fingerprints are
(B) use computerized databases to search for matching fingerprints
(C) count the number of characteristics two fingerprints have in common
(D) calculate the odds of two different individuals' sharing certain very rare fingerprint characteristics
passage a
He cites the inability of the fingerprint examiner who
incriminated him at trial to name any studies establishing
that no two persons have identical fingerprints.

passage b
Are the odds that two partial prints from different people will match one in a thousand, one in a million, or one in a billion?
(E) use computer technology to clarify the images of smudged or partial fingerprints