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555-605 (Medium)|   Long Passage|   Social Science|               
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 13 Apr 2022, 10:51
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AndrewN
^^
Is (b) wrong because

(i) we cant assume that these rats succumbed to the plague themselves - Maybe the rats died on these ships based on sea sickness or lack of food

(ii) (B) makes logical sense but isnt mentioned or inferred per the passage per se
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 13 Apr 2022, 12:43
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Hi AndrewN - on question 3 - not sure how to eliminate (b) unfortunately. This line is really making me believe perhaps (b) is an answer. Curious on how one can eliminate (B)

Quote:

... Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912.

I made the following 3 inferences with the above line in red
  • there were dead rats on ships (ships, that sailed the river : Nile)
  • Based on the number of dead rats on these ships specifically, the plague could not have originated from these trade-ships
  • If the rats survived instead on these trade ships -- the traditional explanation (that the plague originated from trade-ships) would be more a **bit more likely** to be true.

So i selected (B)
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jabhatta2
AndrewN
^^
Is (b) wrong because

(i) we cant assume that these rats succumbed to the plague themselves - Maybe the rats died on these ships based on sea sickness or lack of food

(ii) (B) makes logical sense but isnt mentioned or inferred per the passage per se
Show more
Hello, jabhatta2. If I had taken this passage before, it was not through this site, so I saw your query and did the only responsible thing I could think to do: I read the passage and completed the question set. If you are curious, I went six for six, but my timing is by no means superhuman: 3:26 (including reading), 1:13, 0:52, 0:24, 1:57, 2:34. Those last two questions I wanted to really think through before committing to an answer, based on some of my earlier experiences blowing through a set of questions and missing one, typically toward the end. Anyway, since the passage is fresh on my mind, I feel primed to answer your queries. How about we look at the question for context?

Quote:
3) The passage suggests that Twigg believes that rats could not have spread the Black Death unless which of the following were true?

(A) The rats escaped from ships that had been in Asia.
(B) The rats were immune to the diseases that they carried.
(C) The rat population was larger in medieval Europe than Twigg believes it actually was.
(D) The rat population primarily infested densely populated areas.
(E) The rats interacted with other animals that Twigg believes could have carried plague.
Show more
We need to determine why Twigg does not believe that rats spread the Black Death. Our answer must come from paragraph three. What information do we find on rats, in relation to the question?

Quote:
zoologist Graham Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague. Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912. The Black Death, which he conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim.
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Okay, so I can see a few reasonable answers, based on just how closely the GMAT™ likes an inference to stem from stated information:

1) if the rat population in Europe was... too sparse, then it would need to have been larger;

2) if the rat population in Europe was... insufficiently migratory, then it would need to have been more migratory;

3) if data on the number of dead rats... were different (although we cannot say how, exactly, even if we would want to keep 1) and 2) in mind), then the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions would be more tenable.

From where would we glean any information on rats and immunity to diseases? I see nothing of the sort in paragraph three. So, your reservations above are warranted. Indeed, we cannot speculate on the cause(s) of death of the rats in question, and we need to have textual evidence, not speculation with a dash of logic, to back up our answer. Meanwhile, option (C) touches directly on 1) above, and we should have a much harder time disputing it than any other option.

Of course, I see that GMATNinja has written much of the same above, in this post. But I do not feel as though I have wasted my time. Sometimes it is good for the community to see the same lines of reasoning repeated, and sometimes it is good to see a slightly different take on the same material, even if the thought process leads to the same conclusion.

Thank you for thinking to ask, and good luck with your studies.

- Andrew
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 14 Apr 2023, 10:38
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Question 4


mysteriouswoman
4. The author's attitude toward Twigg's work is best characterized as which of the following?

(A) Dismissive
(B) Indifferent
(C) Vindictive
(D) Cautious
(E) Ambivalent

I chose Option E- ambivalent. I don't understand how the correct answer is option a- dismissive?
To understand the author's attitude toward Twigg's work, look for clues in the passage.

In the third paragraph, the author says one positive thing about Twigg: he "correctly [cites] the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague."

Then, the author goes on a long rant about all of the stuff that Twigg got wrong:

  • "Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings"
  • Twigg also "employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death."
  • Twigg's "speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions," and finally,
  • "his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague."

Yikes! The author really doesn't think that Twigg's research deserves much respect. So, in looking for an answer choice for question 4, we want a word that captured the author's disdain for Twigg's work.

(A) fits the bill. The author dismisses Twigg's work, calling it faulty, speculative, and unconvincing. So, we can say that the author's attitude is dismissive.

(B), on the other hand, is a bit off: "ambivalent" means that you have mixed feelings about something. While the author throws in a few words about something that Twigg got right, he/she then goes on to thoroughly bash Twigg's work. The author thinks that Twigg's work is not worthy of respect, so we can't say that the author was ambivalent toward that work.

(A) is the correct answer to question 4.

I hope that helps!
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GMATNinja MartyTargetTestPrep

The author does talk about one positive aspect(correct exacting conditions) before the negative ones. So won't this be ambivalent as he has both positive and negative feelings? Hence, option E
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 07 May 2023, 13:06
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GMATNinja

Question 4



mysteriouswoman
4. The author's attitude toward Twigg's work is best characterized as which of the following?

(A) Dismissive

(B) Indifferent

(C) Vindictive

(D) Cautious

(E) Ambivalent

I chose Option E- ambivalent. I don't understand how the correct answer is option a- dismissive?

To understand the author's attitude toward Twigg's work, look for clues in the passage.

In the third paragraph, the author says one positive thing about Twigg: he "correctly [cites] the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague."

Then, the author goes on a long rant about all of the stuff that Twigg got wrong:

  • "Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings"
  • Twigg also "employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death."
  • Twigg's "speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions," and finally,
  • "his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague."

Yikes! The author really doesn't think that Twigg's research deserves much respect. So, in looking for an answer choice for question 4, we want a word that captured the author's disdain for Twigg's work.

(A) fits the bill. The author dismisses Twigg's work, calling it faulty, speculative, and unconvincing. So, we can say that the author's attitude is dismissive.

(B), on the other hand, is a bit off: "ambivalent" means that you have mixed feelings about something. While the author throws in a few words about something that Twigg got right, he/she then goes on to thoroughly bash Twigg's work. The author thinks that Twigg's work is not worthy of respect, so we can't say that the author was ambivalent toward that work.

(A) is the correct answer to question 4.

I hope that helps!

GMATNinja MartyTargetTestPrep

The author does talk about one positive aspect(correct exacting conditions) before the negative ones. So won't this be ambivalent as he has both positive and negative feelings? Hence, option E
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The word "ambivalent" implies roughly equal positive feelings and negative feelings. If I feel ambivalent about having pizza for dinner tonight, then I could really go either way -- maybe my positive feelings about the cheesy deliciousness are equally balanced with my negative feelings about the heartburn that is sure to follow.

The author has more negative than positive feelings about Twigg's work. Even if he/she throws in one token positive thing, his/her overall impression of Twigg is definitely negative. So, "dismissive" is a better fit than "ambivalent," even though the author says one nice thing.

I hope that clears things up!
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 28 Aug 2025, 01:26
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Hello, I need some help on Question5 please.
While I understand the reason why all the other answer choices are wrong, I still do not understand why D is correct.
(D) presenting aspects of past and current debate on the historical importance of the Black Death

I dismissed D because of the word current since I don't see in the passage any signs that the author is addressing current opinions.

Any thoughts please? Thank you!
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 11 Sep 2025, 12:38
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Question 5


Pixelm
Hello, I need some help on Question5 please.

While I understand the reason why all the other answer choices are wrong, I still do not understand why D is correct.

(D) presenting aspects of past and current debate on the historical importance of the Black Death

I dismissed D because of the word current since I don't see in the passage any signs that the author is addressing current opinions.

Any thoughts please? Thank you!
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Notice that Gasquet, Coulton, and Kosminsky are all referred to in the past tense: "The Black Death {...} has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study... Thirty-six years later, historian George Coulton agreed... In the 1930s, however, Evgeny Kosminsky and other Marxist historians claimed..."

We're told that the central role of the Black Death in history was restored after the Second World War. Then, in the third paragraph, the author tells us that this restored view has been recently challenged. The author then uses the present tense to describe that challenge: "Graham Twigg employs urban case studies... disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation..." The verb tenses suggest that Twigg's challenge remains a topic of debate and discussion.

The final sentence of the third paragraph seals the deal: "The Black Death, which [Twigg] conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim." The use of the present tense here highlights that the claims made by Twigg and historians are currently at odds and subject to debate.

In the final paragraph, the author continues to use the present tense when criticizing Twigg's ideas. This implies that Twigg's ideas are still up for debate, and the author is wading into the current debate by writing this passage.

I hope that helps!
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 02 Oct 2025, 06:33
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Question 5 - Since this is a primary purpose question that many students struggle with, I will give a detailed explanation as these can be tricky because you need to step back and see the big picture of what the author is really trying to accomplish throughout the entire passage.

Let's think about this systematically. When you're tackling a "primarily concerned with" question, you want to trace the overall structure and ask yourself: "What is the author fundamentally doing here?"

Here's how to approach this:

Step 1: Map the passage structure
Notice how this passage follows a clear chronological progression:
  • Early scholars (1890s-1920s): Gasquet and Coulton saw the Black Death as hugely important
  • Marxist historians (1930s): Argued it was relatively unimportant compared to economic factors
  • Post-WWII scholars: Restored its central role based on mortality data
  • Modern challenge (Twigg): Questions both the importance AND what disease it actually was
  • Author's response: Systematic critique of Twigg's arguments

Step 2: Identify the common thread
What connects all these different time periods and scholars? They're all debating the historical significance of the Black Death. The author isn't trying to resolve this debate - they're showing us how it has evolved over time.

Step 3: Eliminate systematically
  • Choice A is wrong because the passage actually questions the plague-Black Death connection (through Twigg's argument) rather than demonstrating it
  • Choice C focuses too narrowly on disease transmission when most of the passage deals with historical importance
  • Choice E overemphasizes the Marxist angle - they're just one viewpoint among many in this chronological survey

The key insight: The passage opens with "has intrigued scholars ever since" and then systematically presents different scholarly positions across more than a century. This clearly signals that we're looking at an ongoing academic debate about historical importance.

Answer: D - The passage presents aspects of both past debate (early scholars, Marxists, post-WWII historians) and current debate (Twigg's challenge), all focused on the Black Death's historical importance.

You can check out the step-by-step solution on Neuron by e-GMAT to master the systematic framework for all primary purpose questions and learn the pattern recognition techniques that work consistently. You can also explore other GMAT official questions with detailed solutions on Neuron for structured practice here.
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 19 May 2026, 08:32
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Can someone explain question 6?
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 19 May 2026, 13:30
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6. Which of the following statements is most compatible with Kosminsky's approach to history, as it is presented in the passage?

Kosminsky and other Marxist historians argued that the Black Death was only a secondary factor. They believed the larger historical change came mainly from an agrarian crisis caused by the economic decline of feudalism. So Kosminsky’s approach explains history mainly through economic systems, not through the epidemic itself.

(A) The Middle Ages were ended primarily by the religious and political upheaval in fourteenth-century Europe.

Wrong. This is closer to Gasquet’s view, not Kosminsky’s. Kosminsky emphasized economic causes.

(B) The economic consequences of the Black Death included increased competition for food, shelter, and work.

Wrong. Coulton said the opposite: reduced competition created prosperity among survivors.

(C) European history cannot be studied in isolation from that of the rest of the world.

Wrong. The passage does not connect Kosminsky’s view to global history.

(D) The number of deaths in fourteenth-century Europe has been greatly exaggerated by other historians.

Wrong. This is closer to Twigg’s later argument, not Kosminsky’s.

(E) The significance of the Black Death is best explained within the context of evolving economic systems.

Correct. Kosminsky viewed the Black Death as an ancillary factor within a broader agrarian crisis caused by the decay of feudalism. That matches an explanation based on economic systems.

Answer: (E)
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 20 May 2026, 01:35
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Boil it down:
· Black Death has intrigued scholars.
· 1893 - 2 studies : Gasket – upheaval, Coulton – agreed but paradox

· 1930 - Marxist says black death was minor factor.
· WW2: specific studies against Marxist.
· View restored : Black death played a central role in history (upheaval)

· TWIGG - New challenge to central view of black death (bubonic plague).
· TWIGG says plague was not the reason for black death. Gives some evidences.
· TWIGG – less havoc and deaths than historians claim

· Author: Rejects TWIGG’s views. Maybe plague was the cause of black death

Boil it down: Black death. Scholar views. Author’s take.

1. According to the passage, the post-Second World War studies that altered the prevailing view of the Black Death involved which of the following?
(A) Determining the death rates caused by the Black Death in specific regions and towns – Correct “This became the prevailing view until after the Second World War, when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic”
(B) Demonstrating how the Black Death intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages – Wrong – it’s related to P1 not P2
(C) Presenting evidence to prove that many medieval epidemics were mislabelled – wrong
(D) Arguing that the consequences of the Black Death led to the Renaissance and the rise of modern Europe - Wrong – it’s related to P1 not P2
(E) Employing urban case studies to determine the number of rats in medieval Europe – wrong – it’s related to P3 not P2


2. The "silver lining to the Black Death" (the highlighted text) refers to which of the following?
(A) The decay of European feudalism precipitated by the Black Death – wrong – its related to P2 not P1
(B) Greater availability of employment, sustenance, and housing for survivors of the epidemic – correct – “attributed a silver lining to the Black Death: prosperity engendered by diminished competition for food, shelter, and work led survivors of the epidemic into the Renaissance”
(C) Strengthening of the human species through natural selection - irrelevant
(D) Better understanding of how to limit the spread of contagious diseases - irrelevant
(E) Immunities and resistance to the Black Death gained by later generations - irrelevant



3. The passage suggests that Twigg believes that rats could not have spread the Black Death unless which of the following were true?
(A) The rats escaped from ships that had been in Asia – wrong
(B) The rats were immune to the diseases that they carried.- wrong
(C) The rat population was larger in medieval Europe than Twigg believes it actually was.- correct “Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague”
(D) The rat population primarily infested densely populated areas.- wrong
(E) The rats interacted with other animals that Twigg believes could have carried plague – wrong – its related to authors point not Twigg’s



4. The author's attitude toward Twigg's work is best characterized as which of the following?
(A) Dismissive – correct – author rejects Twigg’s views
(B) Indifferent
(C) Vindictive
(D) Cautious
(E) Ambivalent



5. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) demonstrating the relationship between bubonic plague and the Black Death – wrong – only P3
(B) interpreting historical and scientific works on the origins of the Black Death – hold on – wrong passage discussd origin of black death only in P3
(C) employing the Black Death as a case study of disease transmission in medieval Europe - wrong
(D) presenting aspects of past and current debate on the historical importance of the Black Death- hold on – less sexy – correct – as P1 says black death important – P2 says black death not important then, important – P3 says not important – P4 rejects P3
(E) analysing the differences between capitalist and Marxist interpretations of the historical significance of the Black – wrong



6. Which of the following statements is most compatible with Kosminsky's approach to history, as it is presented in the passage?
(A) The Middle Ages were ended primarily by the religious and political upheaval in fourteenth-century Europe – wrong – it’s from P1 not P2
(B) The economic consequences of the Black Death included increased competition for food, shelter, and work. – wrong – it’s from P1 not P2
(C) European history cannot be studied in isolation from that of the rest of the world – irrelevant
(D) The number of deaths in fourteenth-century Europe has been greatly exaggerated by other historians. – wrong – it’s from P3 not P2
(E) The significance of the Black Death is best explained within the context of evolving economic systems – hold on – correct “In arguing that this decline of feudalism was economically determined, the Marxist asserted that the Black Death was a relatively insignificant factor.”
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 23 May 2026, 04:00
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hey generally i take more than 30 minutes to understand the passage , because my vocabulary is very bad , i struggle to understand the statements , which has dense words ,

like the first line itself : The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since.

it taking me so much time , i am selecting the dense words like above which i bolded and then searching for the meaning and then coming back to the passage. this whole thing cost me so much time.. if i don't do this i will not able to understand the passages.

I need help , please suggest me or correct me : (
gmacforjyoab
The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study contending that this epidemic greatly intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages. Thirty-six years later, historian George Coulton agreed but, paradoxically, attributed a silver lining to the Black Death: prosperity engendered by diminished competition for food, shelter, and work led survivors of the epidemic into the Renaissance and subsequent rise of modern Europe.

In the 1930s, however, Evgeny Kosminsky and other Marxist historians claimed the epidemic was merely an ancillary factor contributing to a general agrarian crisis stemming primarily from the inevitable decay of European feudalism. In arguing that this decline of feudalism was economically determined, the Marxist asserted that the Black Death was a relatively insignificant factor. This became the prevailing view until after the Second World War, when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history.

This central role of the Black Death (traditionally attributed to bubonic plague brought from Asia) has been recently challenged from another direction. Building on bacteriologist John Shrewsbury's speculations about mislabeled epidemics, zoologist Graham Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague. Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912. The Black Death, which he conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim.

Although correctly citing the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague, Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings and employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death. His speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions, while his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague.

1. According to the passage, the post-Second World War studies that altered the prevailing view of the Black Death involved which of the following?

(A) Determining the death rates caused by the Black Death in specific regions and towns
(B) Demonstrating how the Black Death intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages
(C) Presenting evidence to prove that many medieval epidemics were mislabeled
(D) Arguing that the consequences of the Black Death led to the Renaissance and the rise of modern Europe
(E) Employing urban case studies to determine the number of rats in medieval Europe



2. The "silver lining to the Black Death" (the highlighted text) refers to which of the following?

(A) The decay of European feudalism precipitated by the Black Death
(B) Greater availability of employment, sustenance, and housing for survivors of the epidemic
(C) Strengthening of the human species through natural selection
(D) Better understanding of how to limit the spread of contagious diseases
(E) Immunities and resistance to the Black Death gained by later generations



3. The passage suggests that Twigg believes that rats could not have spread the Black Death unless which of the following were true?

(A) The rats escaped from ships that had been in Asia.
(B) The rats were immune to the diseases that they carried.
(C) The rat population was larger in medieval Europe than Twigg believes it actually was.
(D) The rat population primarily infested densely populated areas.
(E) The rats interacted with other animals that Twigg believes could have carried plague.



4. The author's attitude toward Twigg's work is best characterized as which of the following?

(A) Dismissive
(B) Indifferent
(C) Vindictive
(D) Cautious
(E) Ambivalent



5. The passage is primarily concerned with

(A) demonstrating the relationship between bubonic plague and the Black Death
(B) interpreting historical and scientific works on the origins of the Black Death
(C) employing the Black Death as a case study of disease transmission in medieval Europe
(D) presenting aspects of past and current debate on the historical importance of the Black Death
(E) analyzing the differences between capitalist and Marxist interpretations of the historical significance of the Black



6. Which of the following statements is most compatible with Kosminsky's approach to history, as it is presented in the passage?

(A) The Middle Ages were ended primarily by the religious and political upheaval in fourteenth-century Europe.
(B) The economic consequences of the Black Death included increased competition for food, shelter, and work.
(C) European history cannot be studied in isolation from that of the rest of the world.
(D) The number of deaths in fourteenth-century Europe has been greatly exaggerated by other historians.
(E) The significance of the Black Death is best explained within the context of evolving economic systems.

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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Eur 26 May 2026, 04:46
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Question 2
  • A) ❌ Nearby trap — belongs to Marxists, paragraph 2
  • B) ✅ Correct — directly paraphrases Coulton's causal chain: less competition for resources → prosperity
  • C) ❌ New component — natural selection never mentioned
  • D) ❌ New component — disease limitation never mentioned
  • E) ❌ New component — immunity never mentioned

Question 3
  • A) ❌ New component — ships from Asia never mentioned
  • B) ❌ New component — rat immunity never mentioned
  • C) ✅ Correct — directly flips Twigg's argument that rats were too sparse
  • D) ❌ Language trap — "densely populated" refers to human areas, not rat population size
  • E) ❌ Nearby trap — other animals carrying plague belongs to the author's critique, paragraph 4

Question 5
  • A) ❌ Too narrow — only covers part of the passage
  • B) ❌ Too narrow + tone mismatch — author is dismissive, not neutral
  • C) ❌ Too narrow — passage is not about disease transmission
  • D) ✅ Correct — broad enough to cover every paragraph as an umbrella
  • E) ❌ Too narrow — Marxist vs capitalist debate only covers paragraph 2

Question 6
  • A) ❌ Nearby trap — belongs to Gasquet, paragraph 1
  • B) ❌ Nearby trap + wrong direction — belongs to Coulton but says opposite of his argument
  • C) ❌ New component — global history never mentioned
  • D) ❌ New component — exaggerated death counts belong to Twigg, not Kosminsky
  • E) ✅ Correct — directly reflects Kosminsky's argument that economic systems explain history

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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study contending that this epidemic greatly intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages. Thirty-six years later, historian George Coulton agreed but, paradoxically, attributed a silver lining to the Black Death: prosperity engendered by diminished competition for food, shelter, and work led survivors of the epidemic into the Renaissance and subsequent rise of modern Europe.

In the 1930s, however, Evgeny Kosminsky and other Marxist historians claimed the epidemic was merely an ancillary factor contributing to a general agrarian crisis stemming primarily from the inevitable decay of European feudalism. In arguing that this decline of feudalism was economically determined, the Marxist asserted that the Black Death was a relatively insignificant factor. This became the prevailing view until after the Second World War, when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history.

This central role of the Black Death (traditionally attributed to bubonic plague brought from Asia) has been recently challenged from another direction. Building on bacteriologist John Shrewsbury's speculations about mislabeled epidemics, zoologist Graham Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague. Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912. The Black Death, which he conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim.

Although correctly citing the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague, Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings and employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death. His speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions, while his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague.

1. According to the passage, the post-Second World War studies that altered the prevailing view of the Black Death involved which of the following?

(A) Determining the death rates caused by the Black Death in specific regions and towns
(B) Demonstrating how the Black Death intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages
(C) Presenting evidence to prove that many medieval epidemics were mislabeled
(D) Arguing that the consequences of the Black Death led to the Renaissance and the rise of modern Europe
(E) Employing urban case studies to determine the number of rats in medieval Europe



2. The "silver lining to the Black Death" (the highlighted text) refers to which of the following?

(A) The decay of European feudalism precipitated by the Black Death
(B) Greater availability of employment, sustenance, and housing for survivors of the epidemic
(C) Strengthening of the human species through natural selection
(D) Better understanding of how to limit the spread of contagious diseases
(E) Immunities and resistance to the Black Death gained by later generations



3. The passage suggests that Twigg believes that rats could not have spread the Black Death unless which of the following were true?

(A) The rats escaped from ships that had been in Asia.
(B) The rats were immune to the diseases that they carried.
(C) The rat population was larger in medieval Europe than Twigg believes it actually was.
(D) The rat population primarily infested densely populated areas.
(E) The rats interacted with other animals that Twigg believes could have carried plague.



4. The author's attitude toward Twigg's work is best characterized as which of the following?

(A) Dismissive
(B) Indifferent
(C) Vindictive
(D) Cautious
(E) Ambivalent



5. The passage is primarily concerned with

(A) demonstrating the relationship between bubonic plague and the Black Death
(B) interpreting historical and scientific works on the origins of the Black Death
(C) employing the Black Death as a case study of disease transmission in medieval Europe
(D) presenting aspects of past and current debate on the historical importance of the Black Death
(E) analyzing the differences between capitalist and Marxist interpretations of the historical significance of the Black



6. Which of the following statements is most compatible with Kosminsky's approach to history, as it is presented in the passage?

(A) The Middle Ages were ended primarily by the religious and political upheaval in fourteenth-century Europe.
(B) The economic consequences of the Black Death included increased competition for food, shelter, and work.
(C) European history cannot be studied in isolation from that of the rest of the world.
(D) The number of deaths in fourteenth-century Europe has been greatly exaggerated by other historians.
(E) The significance of the Black Death is best explained within the context of evolving economic systems.

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