The myth persists that in 1492 the Western Hemisphere was an untamed

The myth persists that in 1492 the Western
Hemisphere was an untamed wilderness and that it was
European settlers who harnessed and transformed its
ecosystems. But scholarship shows that forests, in
(5) particular, had been altered to varying degrees well
before the arrival of Europeans. Native populations had
converted much of the forests to successfully cultivated
stands, especially by means of burning. Nevertheless,
some researchers have maintained that the extent,
(10) frequency, and impact of such burning was minimal.
One geographer claims that climatic change could have
accounted for some of the changes in forest
composition; another argues that burning by native
populations was done only sporadically, to augment the
(15) effects of natural fires.

However, a large body of evidence for the routine
practice of burning exists in the geographical record.
One group of researchers found, for example, that
sedimentary charcoal accumulations in what is now the
(20) northeastern United States are greatest where known
native American settlements were greatest. Other
evidence shows that, while the characteristics and
impact of fires set by native populations varied
regionally according to population size, extent of
(25) resource management techniques, and environment, all
such fires had markedly different effects on vegetation
patterns than did natural fires. Controlled burning
created grassy openings such as meadows and glades.
Burning also promoted a mosaic quality to North and
(30) South American ecosystems, creating forests in many
different stages of ecological development. Much of the
mature forestland was characterized by open,
herbaceous undergrowth, another result of the clearing
brought about by burning.

(35) In North America, controlled burning created
conditions favorable to berries and other fire-tolerant
and sun-loving foods. Burning also converted mixed
stands of trees to homogeneous forest, for example the
longleaf, slash pine, and scrub oak forests of the
(40) southeastern U.S. Natural fires do account for some of
this vegetation, but regular burning clearly extended
and maintained it. Burning also influenced forest
composition in the tropics, where natural fires are rare.
An example is the pine-dominant forests of Nicaragua,
(45) where warm temperatures and heavy rainfall naturally
favor mixed tropical or rain forests. While there are
extensive pine forests in Guatemala and Mexico, these
primarily grow in cooler, drier, higher elevations,
regions where such vegetation is in large part natural
(50) and even prehuman. Today, the Nicaraguan pines
occur where there has been clearing followed by
regular burning, and the same is likely to have occurred
in the past: such forests were present when Europeans
arrived and were found only in areas where native
(55) settlements were substantial; when these settlements
were abandoned, the land returned to mixed
hardwoods. This succession is also evident elsewhere
in similar low tropical elevations in the Caribbean and
Mexico.

1. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main idea of the passage?

(A) Despite extensive evidence that native populations had been burning North and South American forests extensively before 1492, some scholars persist in claiming that such burning was either infrequent or the result of natural causes.
(B) In opposition to the widespread belief that in 1492 the Western Hemisphere was uncultivated, scholars unanimously agree that native populations were substantially altering North and South American forests well before the arrival of Europeans.
(C) Although some scholars minimize the scope and importance of the burning of forests engaged in by native populations of North and South America before 1492, evidence of the frequency and impact of such burning is actually quite extensive.
(D) Where scholars had once believed that North and South American forests remained uncultivated until the arrival of Europeans, there is now general agreement that native populations had been cultivating the forests since well before 1492.
(E) While scholars have acknowledged that North and South American forests were being burned well before 1492, there is still disagreement over whether such burning was the result of natural causes or of the deliberate actions of native populations.

2. It can be inferred that a forest burned as described in the passage would have been LEAST likely to display

(A) numerous types of hardwood trees
(B) extensive herbaceous undergrowth
(C) a variety of fire-tolerant plants
(D) various stages of ecological maturity
(E) grassy openings such as meadows or glades

3. Which one of the following is a type of forest identified by the author as a product of controlled burning in recent times?

(A) scrub oak forests in the southeastern U.S.
(B) slash pine forests in the southeastern U.S.
(C) pine forests in Guatemala at high elevations
(D) pine forests in Mexico at high elevations
(E) pine forests in Nicaragua at low elevations

4. Which one of the following is presented by the author as evidence of controlled burning in the tropics before the arrival of Europeans?

(A) extensive homogeneous forests at high elevation
(B) extensive homogeneous forests at low elevation
(C) extensive heterogeneous forests at high elevation
(D) extensive heterogeneous forests at low elevation
(E) extensive sedimentary charcoal accumulations at high elevation

5. With which one of the following would the author be most likely to agree?

(A) The long-term effects of controlled burning could just as easily have been caused by natural fires.
(B) Herbaceous undergrowth prevents many forests from reaching full maturity.
(C) European settlers had little impact on the composition of the ecosystems in North and South America.
(D) Certain species of plants may not have been as widespread in North America without controlled burning.
(E) Nicaraguan pine forests could have been created either by natural fires or by controlled burning.

6. As evidence for the routine practice of forest burning by native populations before the arrival of Europeans, the author cites all of the following EXCEPT:

(A) the similar characteristics of fires in different regions
(B) the simultaneous presence of forests at varying stages of maturity
(C) the existence of herbaceous undergrowth in certain forests
(D) the heavy accumulation of charcoal near populous settlements
(E) the presence of meadows and glades in certain forests

7. The “succession” mentioned in line 57 refers to

(A) forest clearing followed by controlled burning of forests
(B) tropical rain forest followed by pine forest
(C) European settlement followed by abandonment of land
(D) homogeneous pine forest followed by mixed hardwoods
(E) pine forests followed by established settlements

8. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) refute certain researchers’ views
(B) support a common belief
(C) counter certain evidence
(D) synthesize two viewpoints
(E) correct the geographical record