A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in

Question

A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in cancer among milk drinkers. Cancer, it seems, was becoming increasingly frequent in New England, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Switzerland, where a lot of milk is produced and consumed, while remaining rare in Ceylon, where milk is scarce. For further evidence it was pointed out that cancer was less frequent in some states of the southern United States where less milk was consumed. Also, it was pointed out, milk-drinking English women get some kinds of cancer eighteen times as frequently as Japanese women who seldom drink milk.

A little digging might uncover quite a number of ways to account for these figures, but one factor is enough by itself to show them up. Cancer is predominantly a disease that strikes in middle life or after. Switzerland and the states of the United States mentioned first are alike in having populations with relatively long spans of life. English women at the time the study was made were living an average of twelve years longer than Japanese women.

Professor Helen M. Walker has worked out an amusing illustration of the folly in assuming there must be cause and effect whenever two things vary together. In investigating the relationship between age and some physical characteristics of women, begin by measuring the angle of the feet in walking. You will find that the angle tends to be greater among older women. You might first consider whether this indicates that women grow older because they toe out, and you can see immediately that this is ridiculous. So it appears that age increases the angle between the feet, and most women must come to toe out more as they grow older.

Any such conclusion is probably false and certainly unwarranted. You could only reach it legitimately by studying the same women—or possibly equivalent groups—over a period of time. That would eliminate the factor responsible here, which is that the older women grew up at a time when a young lady was taught to toe out in walking, while the members of the younger group were learning posture in a day when that was discouraged.

When you find somebody—usually an interested party—making a fuss about a correlation, look first of all to see if it is not one of this type, produced by the stream of events, the trend of the times. In our time it is easy to show a positive correlation between any pair of things like these: number of students in college, number of inmates in mental institutions, consumption of cigarettes, incidence of heart disease, use of X-ray machines, production of false teeth,  salaries of California school teachers, profits of Nevada gambling halls.  To call some one of these the cause of some other is manifestly silly. But it is done every day.    1 
 1. The author’s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that

(A) toeing out is associated with aging
(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
(C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
(D) studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age
(E) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age

2 
 2. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (Paragraph two and three) in order to

(A) illustrate a folly
(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(C) explain the effects of aging
(D) illustrate a medical problem
(E) offer a method to determine a woman’s age from her footprints

3 
 3. Given the author’s statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements EXCEPT

(A) look for an explanation in the stream of events
(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
(C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
(D) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(E) decide whether the conclusions have been reached legitimately and the appropriate groupings have been made

4 
 4. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and individual earnings. Given this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause-effect relationship between college attendance and income?

(A) Someone’s potential earnings may be affected by other variables, like wealth or intelligence, that are also associated with college attendance.
(B) Someone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(C) Someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not.
(D) Someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college.
(E) Someone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college.

5 
 5. According to the author, Professor Walker believes that

(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet
(C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet
(D) toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(E) a causal relationship must exist whenever two things vary together

6 
 6. The author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates EXCEPT that the

(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the English
(B) Swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products
(C) Women of New England drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern United States
(D) People of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies
(E) People who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies

7 
 7. How would the author be most likely to explain the correlation between the “salaries of California school teachers   profits of Nevada gambling halls” ( Highlighted )?

(A) There is a positive correlation that is probably due to California teachers’ working in Las Vegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and Nevada’s gambling profits.
(B) There is a positive correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(C) There is a negative correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(D) There is a negative correlation because the element that controls Las Vegas gambling probably has agents in the California school system.
(E) The author would deny the existence of any correlation whatsoever.

sumitkrocks · Accepted Answer

1. The author’s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that

Refer Para 4 :"The older women grew up at a time when a young lady was taught to toe out in walking, while the members of the younger group were learning posture in a day when that was discouraged"

(A) toeing out is associated with aging
(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
 (C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation 
(D) studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age
(E) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age

C is the answer IMO

2. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (Paragraph two and three) in order to

(A) illustrate a folly 
(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(C) explain the effects of aging
(D) illustrate a medical problem
(E) offer a method to determine a woman’s age from her footprints

Author first presents the positive correlation b/w milk consumption and cancer and later cites few examples demonstrating such positive correlations can be misleading  
 
 A is the answer

3. Given the author’s statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements EXCEPT

(A) look for an explanation in the stream of events
(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
 (C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality 
(D) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(E) decide whether the conclusions have been reached legitimately and the appropriate groupings have been made

C is the answer IMO

4. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and individual earnings. Given this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause-effect relationship between college attendance and income?

(A) Someone’s potential earnings may be affected by other variables, like wealth or intelligence, that are also associated with college attendance. 
(B) Someone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(C) Someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not.
(D) Someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college.
(E) Someone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college.

A is the answer, In the entire passage author is trying to demonstrate seemingly positive correlations could be unrelated an dthere may be some external factors responsible for such events

5. According to the author, Professor Walker believes that

Professor walker demonstrated an instance showing seemingly cause and effect behavior being false and later revealed the older woman walked with a greater angle as they were trained to do so when they were young; however such practice of training women with greater angle was stopped 
 
(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet
 (C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet 
(D) toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(E) a causal relationship must exist whenever two things vary together

C is the answer IMO

6. The author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates EXCEPT that the

(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the English
(B) Swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products
(C) Women of New England drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern United States
 (D) People of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies 
(E) People who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies

D is the answer IMO, as Author agrees the Cancer is more common after mid age and if population is likely to live longer, cancer cases might also be more in such a population

7. How would the author be most likely to explain the correlation between the “salaries of California school teachers   profits of Nevada gambling halls” (Highlighted)?

(A) There is a positive correlation that is probably due to California teachers’ working in Las Vegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and Nevada’s gambling profits.
 (B) There is a positive correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists. 
(C) There is a negative correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(D) There is a negative correlation because the element that controls Las Vegas gambling probably has agents in the California school system.
(E) The author would deny the existence of any correlation whatsoever.

B is the answer IMO; Author would not deny the fact that there is positive correlation; However, based on the passage, he/she would suggest some third factor influencing such trend i.e general economic trend in option B

Poojathakkar · Answer

Can anyone explain the 5th question? Why is answer C?

Sajjad1994 · Answer

The text that leads to the answer C is given below:

In investigating the relationship between age and some physical characteristics of women, begin by measuring the angle of the feet in walking. You will find that  the angle tends to be greater among older women.

That is why the answer is C

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

6. The author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates EXCEPT that the

Explanation

One reason this question is hard is the question statement itself, it looks somehow confusing. One can easily get trapped by not paying attention to what actually the question is demanding. This is an EXCEPT question but with a different statement. The question asks us  " which of the following is not the silly example of the cause of cancer?"

(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the English

This is incorrect as this is given in the passage as one of the silly causes of cancer.

(B) Swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products

Same as  (A)

(C) Women of New England drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern United States

Same as  (A)  and  (B)

(D) People of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies

Hmm! this seems a serious talent, lets find it support from the passage:

In the  first paragraph  it is mentioned:

A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in cancer among milk drinkers. Cancer, it seems, was becoming increasingly frequent in New England, Minnesota,  Wisconsin , and Switzerland,  where a lot of milk is produced and consumed .

In Wisconsin, if the consumption of milk is high then why do people of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies? so this is the discrepancy that is out of the box and which negates the silly reasons given in the passage.

(E) People who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies

Incorrect.

Answer: D

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

1. The author’s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that

Explanation

(A) Toeing out is associated with aging: 
This option suggests that there is a direct association between toeing out (the angle of the feet in walking) and the process of aging. However, the passage explicitly states that it would be ridiculous to conclude that women grow older because they toe out. The author emphasizes that age is not the cause of toeing out, but rather cultural and historical factors play a role. Therefore, this option is not supported by the passage.

(B) Toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation: 
This option proposes that toeing out is a fashionable trend among the younger generation. The passage does not mention any association between toeing out and the fashion preferences of the younger generation. Instead, it focuses on the historical context and cultural factors that influenced toeing out in walking among older women. Therefore, this option goes beyond the scope of the passage.

(C) Toeing out was fashionable for an older generation:  
This option aligns with the explanation provided in the passage. The author concludes that the angle of the feet in walking (toeing out) is associated with an older generation. The passage explains that older women grew up at a time when toeing out in walking was fashionable and taught, suggesting that it was a characteristic of the older generation. Therefore, this option accurately reflects the author's conclusion.

(D) Studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age: 
This option suggests that studying equivalent groups would provide evidence that toeing out increases with age. However, the passage does not discuss studying equivalent groups or provide evidence to support this claim. The passage emphasizes the influence of historical context and societal factors, rather than a direct relationship between age and toeing out. Therefore, this assumption is not supported by the passage.

(E) Studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age: 
This option proposes that studying the same women over time would demonstrate that toeing out increases with age. While the passage mentions the importance of studying the same women or equivalent groups to eliminate confounding factors, it does not specifically address studying the same women over a period of time to prove an increase in toeing out with age. Therefore, this assumption goes beyond the scope of the passage.

Answer: C

rn1112 · Answer

1. The author’s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that

(A) toeing out is associated with aging
 goes against the passage flow -- correlation doesn't justify not causation

(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
 states the opposite as per the facts highlighted in the 3rd paragraph

(C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
  The author would have believed that toeing out was fashionable for an older generation. Simultaneously, it also justifies the passage flow --correlation doesn't justify not causation. Also, in line with the facts highlighted in the 3rd paragraph.

(D) studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age
 no such claims highlighted in the passage

(E) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age
 The assumptions regarding whether young women ere trained for toeing out in their younger years will nullify this stem

The correct option is (C)

rn1112 · Answer

2. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (Paragraph two and three) in order to 
 
(A) illustrate a folly
  as evidently highlighted in the 3rd passage --'Professor Helen M. Walker has worked out an amusing illustration of the folly' absolutely bang on !

(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
 social attitudes' changes has been used to as a supporting statement to assist understanding the folly

(C) explain the effects of aging
 Irrelevant. The explanation of the effects of aging was not the aim of Professor Helen M. Walker's study

(D) illustrate a medical problem
 Out of scope, as medical problem through was not the study's essence

(E) offer a method to determine a woman’s age from her footprints
 Again, the determination of age was not the purpose of the study

The correct option is (A)

rn1112 · Answer

3. Given the author’s statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements EXCEPT

(A) look for an explanation in the stream of events
 relevant extract from the passage (5th paragraph) -- 'When you find somebody—usually an interested party—making a fuss about a correlation, look first of all to see if it is not one of this type, produced by the stream of events, the trend of the times'

(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
 relevant extract from the passage (5th paragraph0 -- 'When you find somebody—usually an interested party—making a fuss about a correlation, look first of all to see if it is not one of this type, produced by the stream of events, the trend of the times'

(C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
 The arguments highlighted in the 4th and 5th paragraph elucidate such factors that account for the correlations in some way other than causality

(D) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
  The author's advice doesn't highlight this aspect for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation and associated causality, if any

(E) decide whether the conclusions have been reached legitimately and the appropriate groupings have been made
 relevant extract from the passage (4th paragraph) -- 'only reach it legitimately by studying the same women—or possibly equivalent groups—over a period of time'.

The correct answer is (D)

rn1112 · Answer

4. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and individual earnings. Given this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause-effect relationship between college attendance and income?

(A) Someone’s potential earnings may be affected by other variables, like wealth or intelligence, that are also associated with college attendance.
  The author highlights through the passage that correlation shouldn't be confused with causation, rather correlation between college attendance and individual earnings can be explained other related variables.

(B) Someone who attends graduate school will be rich.
 correlation between the variables understood as causation -- opposite to the author's argument

(C) Someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not.
 similar misunderstanding exhibited through this stem also -- correlation between the variables understood as causation -- opposite to the author's argument

(D) Someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college.
 causation attributed to the correlated variables -- contrary to the author's argument

(E) Someone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college.
 Not in line with the author's argument -- here also, causation of earning more money has been explained through the college attendance variable

The correct option is (A)

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

5. According to the author, Professor Walker believes that

Explanation

(A) Women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not:  
This option is not supported by the passage. The passage does not discuss the rate of aging in relation to toeing out.

(B) Most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet: 
This option is also not supported by the passage. The passage explains that the angle between the feet tends to increase with age, but it does not suggest that toeing out is a result of growing older.

(C) Older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet:   
This is the correct answer. The passage clearly states that the angle between the feet tends to be greater among older women.

(D) Toeing out is the reason why women grow old: 
This option is not supported by the passage. The passage does not discuss any causal relationship between toeing out and aging.

(E) A causal relationship must exist whenever two things vary together: 
This option is not mentioned in the passage. While the passage emphasizes the importance of not assuming a causal relationship based on a correlation, it does not explicitly state that a causal relationship must always exist when two things vary together.

In summary, option (C) is the correct answer because the passage specifically states that older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet.

Answer: C

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

6. The author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates EXCEPT that the

Explanation

(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the English: 
This statement suggests that Ceylonese people (people from Sri Lanka) consume more milk than the English. The passage mentions that cancer rates are less frequent in Ceylon, where milk is scarce. While the author doesn't explicitly reject this statement as an explanation, it is not a central argument in the passage. The focus is more on the correlation between milk consumption and cancer rates in different regions.

(B) Swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products: 
This statement indicates that the Swiss produce and consume significant amounts of dairy products. The passage mentions Switzerland as one of the regions where cancer rates are increasing and highlights the correlation with milk consumption. The author argues that the longer life spans of the population in Switzerland, rather than milk consumption alone, could be a factor in the increased cancer rates. The passage does not explicitly reject this statement as an explanation for the statistics.

(C) Women of New England drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern United States: 
This statement suggests that women in New England consume more milk than women in certain states in the southern United States. The passage mentions New England as one of the regions where cancer rates are increasing and refers to the correlation between milk consumption and cancer rates. The author does not explicitly reject this statement as an explanation for the statistics.

(D) People of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies:  
This statement states that people in Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies. The passage discusses the correlation between longer life spans in certain regions and the increase in cancer rates. However, the author rejects the idea that high cancer rates in those regions are solely due to milk consumption. The passage does explicitly reject this statement as an explanation for the statistics.

(E) People who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies: 
This statement suggests that people who live in certain states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies. The passage discusses the correlation between longer life spans in certain regions and the increase in cancer rates. While the author does not explicitly reject this statement as an explanation, it is not a central argument in the passage.

To summarize, options (A), (B), (C), and (E) are not explicitly rejected by the author as explanations for the increase in cancer rates. Only option (D) is explicitly rejected as an explanation in the passage.

Answer: D

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

7. How would the author be most likely to explain the correlation between the “salaries of California school teachers   profits of Nevada gambling halls” (Highlighted)?

Explanation

Based on the information provided in the passage, the author would most likely explain the correlation between the "salaries of California school teachers   profits of Nevada gambling halls" as (B) There is a positive correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.

The passage emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between correlation and causation and cautions against assuming cause and effect whenever two things vary together. It mentions that in our time, it is easy to show positive correlations between pairs of things that are influenced by general economic trends or other factors. The examples given include the number of students in college, number of inmates in mental institutions, consumption of cigarettes, incidence of heart disease, use of X-ray machines, production of false teeth, salaries of California school teachers, and profits of Nevada gambling halls.

The author implies that these correlations are likely influenced by broader economic or societal trends rather than having a direct causal relationship. Therefore, it can be inferred that the author would explain the correlation between the salaries of California school teachers and the profits of Nevada gambling halls as a positive correlation linked to general economic trends, but not as a result of a direct causal relationship between the two factors.

Answer: B

VerbalBot · Answer

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A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in

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A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in

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