Years before the advent of plate tectonics―the widely accepted theory, developed in the mid-1960's, the holds that the major features of Earth's surface are created by the horizontal motions of Earth's outer shell, or lithosphere―a similar theory was rejected by the geological community. In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed, in a widely debated theory that came to be called continental drift, that Earth's continents were mobile. To most geologists today, Wegener's The origin of Continents and Oceans appears an impressive and prescient document, containing several of the essential presumptions underlying plate tectonics theory: the horizontal mobility of pieces of Earth's crust; the essential difference between oceanic and continental crust; and a causal connection between horizontal displacements and the formation of mountain chains. Yet despite the considerable overlap between Wegener's concepts and the later widely embraced plate tectonics theory, and despite the fact that continental drift theory presented a possible solution to the problem of the origin of mountains at a time when existing explanations were seriously in doubt, in its day Wegener's theory was rejected by the vast majority of geologists. Most geologists and many historians today believe that Wegener's theory was rejected because of its lack of an adequate mechanical basis. Stephen Jay Gould, for example, argues that continental drift theory was rejected because it did not explain how continents could move through an apparently solid oceanic floor. However, as Anthony Hallam has pointed out, many scientific phenomena, such as the ice ages, have been accepted before they could be fully explained. The most likely cause for the rejection of continental drift―a cause that has been largely ignored because we consider Wegener's theory to have been validated by the theory of plate tectonics―is the nature of the evidence that was put forward to support it. Most of Wegener's evidence consisted of homologies―similarities of patterns and forms based on direct observations of rocks in the field, supported by the use of hammers, hand lenses, and field notebooks. In contrast, the data supporting plate tectonics were impressively geophysical―instrumental determinations of the physical properties of Earth garnered through the use of seismographs, magnetometers, and computers. 1 VRC00416-04 1. The author cites Hallam on the ice ages primarily in order to (A) provide an example of a geologic phenomenon whose precise causes are not fully understood by geologists today (B) criticize the geological community for an apparent lack of consistency in its responses to new theories (C) offer evidence held to undermine a common view of why Wegener’s theory was not accepted in its day (D) give an example of a modern scientist who believes that Wegener’s theory was rejected because it failed to adequately explain the mechanical basis of continental drift (E) support Gould’s rationale for why Wegener’s theory was rejected by most geologists in the early twentieth century 2 VRC00416-03 2. The author of the passage refers to the "considerable overlap" between continental drift theory and plate tectonics theory most probably in order to (A) suggest that plate tectonics theory is derived from Wegener’s work (B) introduce a discussion comparing the elements of the two theories (C) examine the question of whether continental drift theory was innovative in its time (D) provide a reason why it might seem surprising that continental drift theory was not more widely embraced by geologists (E) cite an explanation that has been frequently offered for Wegener’s high standing among geologists today 3 VRC000416-02 3. The author of the passage suggests that the most likely explanation for the geological community’s response to continental drift theory in its day was that the theory (A) was in conflict with certain aspects of plate tectonics theory (B) failed to account for how mountains were formed (C) did not adequately explain how continents moved through the ocean floor (D) was contradicted by the geophysical data of the time (E) was based on a kind of evidence that was considered insufficiently convincing 4 VRC00416-01 4. It can be inferred from the passage that geologists today would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about Wegener’s The Origin of Continents and Oceans ? (A) It was a worthy scientific effort that was ahead of its time. (B) It was based on evidence that was later disproved. (C) It was directly responsible for the acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics. (D) It has been disproved by continental drift theory. (E) It misrepresented how horizontal displacements cause the formation of mountain chains. 5 VRC00416-05 5. The author of the passage most likely discusses the “essential presumptions” (see highlighted text) of The Origin of Continents and Oceans in order to (A) indicate features of Wegener's theory that caused it to be doubted in its day (B) show why Wegener's theory is now regarded as prescient (C) indicate differences between plate tectonics and the theory of continental drift (D) cite features of the theory of continental drift for which no evidence was available in Wegener’s day (E) point out aspects of Wegener's theory that were accepted well before the advent of platetectonics 102084 102085 102086 102087 102088

PASSAGE MAP P1: Plate tectonics (1960s) = widely accepted theory that lithosphere moves horizontally. Before that, Wegener (1912) proposed continental drift → rejected. Geologists today find his work impressive and prescient — overlaps with plate tectonics in 3 key ways. But despite this overlap, was still rejected in its day. P2: Most geologists/historians say → rejected due to lack of mechanical basis. Gould = example supporting this view. Hallam = counter, says ice ages were accepted without full explanation, so mechanical basis can't be the real reason. Author's real explanation → Wegener used old fashioned field observations vs plate tectonics used sophisticated instruments. Nature of evidence was the real problem. Q1 — Answer: C A ❌ — Ice ages is the example Hallam uses, not the author's primary reason for citing him B ❌ — Author is not criticizing geological community for inconsistency C ✅ — Hallam is cited to counter Gould's argument that rejection was due to lack of mechanical basis D ❌ — Hallam is actually arguing the opposite, undermining the mechanical basis argument not supporting it E ❌ — Hallam is directly countering Gould, not supporting him Q2 — Answer: D A ❌ — Passage never claims plate tectonics was derived from Wegener B ❌ — No detailed comparison of the two theories is ever introduced C ❌ — Overlap with plate tectonics doesn't examine whether continental drift was innovative D ✅ — "Despite" signals contradiction — overlap should have made acceptance more likely, making rejection more surprising E ❌ — Overlap isn't cited as explanation for Wegener's high standing among geologists Q3 — Answer: E A ❌ — Actually opposite, passage says there was considerable overlap between the two theories, not conflict B ❌ — Continental drift actually offered a solution to mountain formation, listed as one of its strengths C ❌ — This is Gould's explanation which the author counters with Hallam, not the author's preferred explanation D ❌ — Actually opposite, geophysical data came later with plate tectonics, not in Wegener's time E ✅ — Directly paraphrases author's conclusion that real reason was nature of evidence — field observations vs sophisticated instruments Q4 — Answer: A A ✅ — Directly supported, passage calls Wegener's work "impressive and prescient" meaning worthy and ahead of its time B ❌ — Passage never says his evidence was disproved, just considered insufficiently convincing C ❌ — Passage never claims Wegener was directly responsible for plate tectonics, just considerable overlap D ❌ — Actually opposite, continental drift and plate tectonics overlap significantly, one didn't disprove the other E ❌ — Actually opposite, passage says Wegener correctly identified causal connection between horizontal displacements and mountain formation Q5 — Answer: B A ❌ — Actually opposite, presumptions are listed to show how impressive Wegener's work was, not why it was doubted B ✅ — Author lists presumptions immediately after calling Wegener "impressive and prescient" — they are the evidence for why geologists today consider him prescient C ❌ — Presumptions actually show similarities between the two theories, not differences D ❌ — Passage never suggests there was no evidence available for these presumptions E ❌ — Passage never says these presumptions were accepted before plate tectonics, Wegener was actually rejected despite them

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Years before the advent of plate tectonicsthe widely accepted theory

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Borrat

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This had a lot going on in terms of who views what. it took me over 4 minutes. Can an expert show us how he utilises his time effectively when reading ?

Borrat

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PASSAGE MAP
P1: Plate tectonics (1960s) = widely accepted theory that lithosphere moves horizontally. Before that, Wegener (1912) proposed continental drift → rejected. Geologists today find his work impressive and prescient — overlaps with plate tectonics in 3 key ways. But despite this overlap, was still rejected in its day.
P2: Most geologists/historians say → rejected due to lack of mechanical basis. Gould = example supporting this view. Hallam = counter, says ice ages were accepted without full explanation, so mechanical basis can't be the real reason. Author's real explanation → Wegener used old fashioned field observations vs plate tectonics used sophisticated instruments. Nature of evidence was the real problem.

Q1 — Answer: C

A ❌ — Ice ages is the example Hallam uses, not the author's primary reason for citing him
B ❌ — Author is not criticizing geological community for inconsistency
C ✅ — Hallam is cited to counter Gould's argument that rejection was due to lack of mechanical basis
D ❌ — Hallam is actually arguing the opposite, undermining the mechanical basis argument not supporting it
E ❌ — Hallam is directly countering Gould, not supporting him

Q2 — Answer: D

A ❌ — Passage never claims plate tectonics was derived from Wegener
B ❌ — No detailed comparison of the two theories is ever introduced
C ❌ — Overlap with plate tectonics doesn't examine whether continental drift was innovative
D ✅ — "Despite" signals contradiction — overlap should have made acceptance more likely, making rejection more surprising
E ❌ — Overlap isn't cited as explanation for Wegener's high standing among geologists

Q3 — Answer: E

A ❌ — Actually opposite, passage says there was considerable overlap between the two theories, not conflict
B ❌ — Continental drift actually offered a solution to mountain formation, listed as one of its strengths
C ❌ — This is Gould's explanation which the author counters with Hallam, not the author's preferred explanation
D ❌ — Actually opposite, geophysical data came later with plate tectonics, not in Wegener's time
E ✅ — Directly paraphrases author's conclusion that real reason was nature of evidence — field observations vs sophisticated instruments

Q4 — Answer: A

A ✅ — Directly supported, passage calls Wegener's work "impressive and prescient" meaning worthy and ahead of its time
B ❌ — Passage never says his evidence was disproved, just considered insufficiently convincing
C ❌ — Passage never claims Wegener was directly responsible for plate tectonics, just considerable overlap
D ❌ — Actually opposite, continental drift and plate tectonics overlap significantly, one didn't disprove the other
E ❌ — Actually opposite, passage says Wegener correctly identified causal connection between horizontal displacements and mountain formation

Q5 — Answer: B

A ❌ — Actually opposite, presumptions are listed to show how impressive Wegener's work was, not why it was doubted
B ✅ — Author lists presumptions immediately after calling Wegener "impressive and prescient" — they are the evidence for why geologists today consider him prescient
C ❌ — Presumptions actually show similarities between the two theories, not differences
D ❌ — Passage never suggests there was no evidence available for these presumptions
E ❌ — Passage never says these presumptions were accepted before plate tectonics, Wegener was actually rejected despite them