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06 Feb 2026, 21:44
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In investigating memory-beliefs, certain points must be borne in mind. Everything that constitutes a memory-belief is happening now, not in the past to which the belief refers. It is not logically necessary for the existence of a memory-belief that the event remembered should actually have occurred, or even that the past should have existed at all. There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago with people who remember a wholly unreal past. Since there is no logically necessary connection between events at different times, what we call knowledge of the past is logically independent of the past and can be fully analyzed in terms of present mental contents alone.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s argument that what we call “knowledge of the past” is logically independent of the actual past?
(A) Psychological studies show that people can form vivid and detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s argument that what we call “knowledge of the past” is logically independent of the actual past?
(A) Psychological studies show that people can form vivid and detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
07 Feb 2026, 00:34
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In investigating memory-beliefs, certain points must be borne in mind. Everything that constitutes a memory-belief is happening now, not in the past to which the belief refers. It is not logically necessary for the existence of a memory-belief that the event remembered should actually have occurred, or even that the past should have existed at all. There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago with people who remember a wholly unreal past. Since there is no logically necessary connection between events at different times, what we call knowledge of the past is logically independent of the past and can be fully analyzed in terms of present mental contents alone.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s argument that what we call “knowledge of the past” is logically independent of the actual past?
The author’s claim is about logical possibility: having memory beliefs now does not logically require that the past events (or even the past itself) really happened. So the best strengthener is the option that directly restates and supports that logical gap, not just an empirical fact about how memory works.
(A) Psychological studies show that people can form vivid and detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
This supports the idea that false memories can happen, but it is empirical and limited. The author’s point is broader: even if no past existed, present memory beliefs could still exist. This does not fully reach that claim.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
This directly supports the author’s core point. If this is true, then “knowledge of the past” (as a present mental state) does not logically depend on the actual past.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
That memories are formed by present brain activity does not show that the content of those memories is logically independent of whether past events occurred. This is about mechanism, not logical dependence.
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
A debate existing does not support the author’s specific conclusion. It provides no evidence for logical independence.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
Usefulness is not logical support. This explains why people believe memories track reality, not why that belief is logically independent of the past.
Answer: (B)
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s argument that what we call “knowledge of the past” is logically independent of the actual past?
The author’s claim is about logical possibility: having memory beliefs now does not logically require that the past events (or even the past itself) really happened. So the best strengthener is the option that directly restates and supports that logical gap, not just an empirical fact about how memory works.
(A) Psychological studies show that people can form vivid and detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
This supports the idea that false memories can happen, but it is empirical and limited. The author’s point is broader: even if no past existed, present memory beliefs could still exist. This does not fully reach that claim.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
This directly supports the author’s core point. If this is true, then “knowledge of the past” (as a present mental state) does not logically depend on the actual past.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
That memories are formed by present brain activity does not show that the content of those memories is logically independent of whether past events occurred. This is about mechanism, not logical dependence.
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
A debate existing does not support the author’s specific conclusion. It provides no evidence for logical independence.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
Usefulness is not logical support. This explains why people believe memories track reality, not why that belief is logically independent of the past.
Answer: (B)
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(A) Psychological studies show that people can form vivid and detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
Analysis: This provides empirical (real-world) evidence that false memories exist. While supportive, the author's argument is about logical possibility, not just psychological phenomena. (B) provides a more absolute logical bridge.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
Analysis: Correct. This choice perfectly mirrors the author’s conclusion. If it is possible for all memories to exist without any past, then the past is truly "logically independent." This addresses the "logically necessary connection" mentioned in the text.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
Analysis: This supports the premise that memory happens "now," but it doesn't address the "logical independence" from the past event itself as strongly as (B).
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
Analysis: This is a "neutral" statement. Mentioning that a debate exists does not strengthen one side of the argument.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
Analysis: This explains the utility of memory, but the author is concerned with the logic of memory. It does not help prove independence.
Final Answer
Correct Choice: (B)
The argument hinges on the idea that there is no "logically necessary connection" between the present and the past. Choice (B) reinforces this by stating that the entirety of our present mental state could exist without a real past. This makes the "logical independence" claim much more robust.
Analysis: This provides empirical (real-world) evidence that false memories exist. While supportive, the author's argument is about logical possibility, not just psychological phenomena. (B) provides a more absolute logical bridge.
(B) It is logically possible for all present memory-beliefs to exist exactly as they do even if no past events ever took place.
Analysis: Correct. This choice perfectly mirrors the author’s conclusion. If it is possible for all memories to exist without any past, then the past is truly "logically independent." This addresses the "logically necessary connection" mentioned in the text.
(C) Neuroscientific research suggests that memory formation depends on brain activity occurring entirely in the present moment.
Analysis: This supports the premise that memory happens "now," but it doesn't address the "logical independence" from the past event itself as strongly as (B).
(D) Philosophers have long debated whether skepticism about the existence of the past can ever be conclusively resolved.
Analysis: This is a "neutral" statement. Mentioning that a debate exists does not strengthen one side of the argument.
(E) Most people assume that their memories correspond to real past events because this assumption is useful in daily life.
Analysis: This explains the utility of memory, but the author is concerned with the logic of memory. It does not help prove independence.
Final Answer
Correct Choice: (B)
The argument hinges on the idea that there is no "logically necessary connection" between the present and the past. Choice (B) reinforces this by stating that the entirety of our present mental state could exist without a real past. This makes the "logical independence" claim much more robust.
