Mechanisms for recognizing kin are found throughout the plant and

Question

Mechanisms for recognizing kin are found throughout the plant and animal kingdoms, regardless of an organism’s social or mental complexity. Improvements in the general understanding of these mechanisms have turned some biologists’ attention to the question of why kin recognition occurs at all. One response to this question is offered by the inclusive fitness theory, which was developed in the 1960s. The theory is based on the realization that an organism transmits its genetic attributes to succeeding generations not solely through its offspring, but more generally through all of its close relatives. Whereas the traditional view of evolution held that natural selection favors the continued genetic representation of individuals within a species that produce the greatest number of offspring, the inclusive fitness theory posits that natural selection similarly favors organisms that help their relatives, because doing so also increases their own total genetic representation. The theory has helped to explain previously mysterious phenomena, including the evolution of social insect species like the honeybee, most of whose members do not produce offspring and exist only to nurture relatives.

Inclusive fitness theory has also been applied usefully to new findings concerning cannibalism within animal species. Based on the theory, cannibals should have evolved to avoid eating their own kin because of the obvious genetic costs of such a practice. Spade-foot toad tadpoles provide an illustration. Biologists have found that all tadpoles of that species begin life as omnivores, feeding mainly on organic debris in their soon-to-be-dry pool in the desert, but that occasionally one tadpole eats another or eats a freshwater shrimp. This event can trigger changes in the tadpole’s physiology and dietary preference, causing the tadpole to become larger and exclusively carnivorous, feasting on other animals including members of its own species. Yet the cannibals have a procedure of discrimination whereby they nip at other tadpoles, eating non-siblings but releasing siblings unharmed. This suggests that the inclusive fitness theory offers at least a partial answer to why kin recognition develops. Interestingly, a cannibal tadpole is less likely to avoid eating kin when it becomes very hungry, apparently putting its own unique genetic makeup ahead of its siblings’.

But there may be other reasons why organisms recognize kin. For example, it has recently been found that tiger salamander larvae, also either omnivorous or cannibalistic, are plagued in nature by a deadly bacterium. Furthermore, it was determined that cannibal larvae are especially likely to be infected by eating diseased species members. The fact that this bacterium is more deadly when it comes from a close relative with a similar immune system suggests that natural selection may favor cannibals that avoid such pathogens by not eating kin. For tiger salamanders then, kin recognition can be explained simply as a means by which an organism preserves its own life, not as a means to aid in relatives’ survival.   1 
 1. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

(A) Some findings support the hypothesis that kin recognition emerged through natural selection because it increased organisms’ total genetic representation, but this hypothesis may not explain all instances of kin recognition.
(B) Current research supports the view that the mechanisms enabling the members of a species to recognize close relatives are as various as the purposes served by that ability.
(C) Recent research involving tiger salamanders undermines the hypothesis concerning the purpose of kin recognition that is espoused by traditional evolutionary theorists.
(D) New research involving tiger salamanders indicates that the traditional theory of natural selection is more strongly supported by the evidence than is thought by those who consider only the case of the spade foot toad tadpole.
(E) While traditional evolutionary theory was unable to account for the phenomenon of kin recognition, this phenomenon is fully explained by the inclusive fitness theory.

2  
 2. The passage states which one of the following about some spadefoot toad tadpoles? \

(A) They develop the ability to recognize fellow carnivores.
(B) They feed only upon omnivorous tadpoles.
(C) They change in body size when they become carnivores.
(D) Their carnivorousness constitutes an important piece of evidence that calls into question the inclusive fitness theory.
(E) Their carnivorousness would not occur unless it contributed in some way to the evolutionary success of the spadefoot toad species.

3  
 3. Based on the passage, the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about evolutionary explanations of kin recognition?

(A) It is impossible to understand the mechanisms underlying kin recognition until an evolutionary explanation of such recognition has been attained.
(B) Such explanations require no modifications to traditional evolutionary theory.
(C) For any such explanation to be fully adequate it should ignore the differences of social or mental complexity of the organisms whose abilities it is intended to explain. 
(D) Kin recognition may have different evolutionary explanations in different species. 
(E) No other evolutionary explanation can account for the wide diversity of unusual phenomena with the same success as the inclusive fitness theory.

4  
 4. Which one of the following most accurately describes the function of the last sentence of the second paragraph?

(A) to draw attention to behavior that further complicates the set of facts to be explained by any theory of natural selection that accounts for kin recognition
(B) to explain why cannibals in most species eat their kin less often than do cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles
(C) to describe behavior that lends support to the account of kin recognition presented in the second paragraph
(D) to offer evidence that the behavior of cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles is unexplainable
(E) to imply that the described behavior is more relevant to the issue at hand than is the immediately preceding material

5  
 5. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following statements about the mechanism by which cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles recognize their kin?

(A) It is not dependent solely on the use of visual cues.
(B) It is neither utilized nor possessed by those tadpoles that do not become cannibalistic.
(C) It does not always allow a tadpole to distinguish its siblings from tadpoles that are not siblings.
(D) It is rendered unnecessary by physiological changes accompanying the dietary shift from omnivorousness to carnivorousness. 
(E) It could not have developed in a species in which all members are omnivorous.

6  
 6. The passage states which one of the following about the mechanisms that enable organisms to recognize their close genetic relatives?

(A) The mechanisms are most easily explained if we assume that they have a similar purpose in all species regardless of the species’ social or mental complexities.
(B) The mechanisms have become more clearly understood, prompting interest in the purpose they serve.
(C) The mechanisms have become the focus of theoretical attention only since the 1960s.
(D) The detailed workings of these mechanisms must be better understood before their purpose can be fully explained.
(E) The mechanisms operate differently in different species even when they serve exactly the same function.

7  
 7. The information in the passage most strongly suggests that the fact that most honeybees exist only to nurture relatives

(A) was not known to be true before the 1960s 
(B) can be explained only if we assume that these members are in turn nurtured by the relatives they nurture
(C) is what led most biologists to reject the traditional view of evolution
(D) calls into question the view that evolution proceeds by natural selection
(E) is difficult to explain without at least supplementing the traditional view of evolution with further explanatory hypotheses

8  
 8. Which one of the following would, if true, most help to undermine the author’s evaluation in the last sentence of the passage?

(A) Many tiger salamander larvae infected by the deadly bacterium are not cannibalistic. 
(B) The factor that determines which tiger salamander larvae are carnivorous and which are omnivorous is not contained in the genetic makeup of the larvae.
(C) Kin recognition helps tiger salamanders avoid inbreeding that may be life-threatening to their offspring.
(D) Noncannibalistic tiger salamanders tend to produce fewer offspring than cannibalistic tiger salamanders.
(E) Cannibalistic tiger salamanders are immune to certain diseases to which noncannibalistic salamanders are not.

PrashantPonde · Answer

Official Explanations:

1. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

(A) Some findings support the hypothesis that kin recognition emerged through natural selection because it increased organisms’ total genetic representation, but this hypothesis may not explain all instances of kin recognition.
(B) Current research supports the view that the mechanisms enabling the members of a species to recognize close relatives are as various as the purposes served by that ability.
(C) Recent research involving tiger salamanders undermines the hypothesis concerning the purpose of kin recognition that is espoused by traditional evolutionary theorists.
(D) New research involving tiger salamanders indicates that the traditional theory of natural selection is more strongly supported by the evidence than is thought by those who consider only the case of the spade foot toad tadpole.
(E) While traditional evolutionary theory was unable to account for the phenomenon of kin recognition, this phenomenon is fully explained by the inclusive fitness theory.

Answer: A

Structural keywords can often provide a pretty accurate basis for answering Main Point questions in passages without a strong author opinion.

There’s no strong author opinion here, so the answer to the Main Point is going to be equally neutral. The passage begins with an introduction of a theory that “posits” (line 17) that kin recognition developed to aid an organism’s total genetic representation. The theory is then applied to honeybees (lines 20–24) and tadpoles (Paragraph 2). The “but” in line 48 really drives home the final point—the inclusive theory can’t explain everything (particularly not the salamander larvae). So, we want an answer that expresses the theory properly and shows how it can apply, but not always.

(A) is a per fect fit. This answer accurately describes the inclusive fitness theory, mentions the supporting examples, and (most importantly) mentions the fact that it doesn’t necessarily explain everything.

For the record:

(B) Outside the Scope. This passage doesn’t actually discuss the mechanisms used to recognize kin. It only discusses the reasons for kin recognition.

(C) 180. Actually, this is contrary to the facts. The salamander research would more likely support any potential hypothesis of traditional evolutionists (as described in lines 13–16). They feel that natural selection favors individual organisms—which might explain why salamanders are only looking out for themselves. The salamander research runs contrast to the inclusive fitness theory, which posits natural section favoring an organism’s total genetic representation (including family).

(D) FUD. While this may be accurate, it focuses too much on the salamander research and the traditional theory of natural selection. It completely ignores the inclusive fitness theory, which is the primary focus of the entire passage.

(E) Extreme. The third paragraph alone shows that the inclusive fitness theory does not (as this answer states) fully explain kin recognition.

2. The passage states which one of the following about some spadefoot toad tadpoles? \

(A) They develop the ability to recognize fellow carnivores.
(B) They feed only upon omnivorous tadpoles.
(C) They change in body size when they become carnivores.
(D) Their carnivorousness constitutes an important piece of evidence that calls into question the inclusive fitness theory.
(E) Their carnivorousness would not occur unless it contributed in some way to the evolutionary success of the spadefoot toad species.

Answer: C

In heavily detailed passages, try not to answer questions based on memory because wrong answers will usually include misapplied details.

Spadefoot tadpoles are described throughout the second paragraph. There’s a lot of information, so predicting the answer may not be feasible. Instead,
let’s go through the answers and research only the likely candidates.

(A) Doesn’t seem familiar. Lines 39–42 suggest that they can differentiate between siblings and nonsiblings, but there’s nothing stated about recognizing other carnivores. Eliminate.

(B) Lines 37–39 describe how tadpoles can grow to become exclusively carnivorous, but there’s nothing about the tadpoles being selective about eating
carnivores versus omnivores. Eliminate.

(C) According to lines 35–38, the eating of another tadpole can change a tadpole’s dietary habits (turning it carnivorous), which causes the tadpole to become larger. That detail about a change in body size makes this answer a match.

For the record:

(D) This is the complete opposite. The behavior of the tadpoles is mentioned as direct support for the inclusive fitness theory.

(E) A slight distortion. It’s not the carnivorousness that develops to protect the evolutionary success of the species. It’s the ability to recognize kin that develops to protect the species.

3. Based on the passage, the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about evolutionary explanations of kin recognition?

(A) It is impossible to understand the mechanisms underlying kin recognition until an evolutionary explanation of such recognition has been attained.
(B) Such explanations require no modifications to traditional evolutionary theory.
(C) For any such explanation to be fully adequate it should ignore the differences of social or mental complexity of the organisms whose abilities it is intended to explain. 
(D) Kin recognition may have different evolutionary explanations in different species. 
(E) No other evolutionary explanation can account for the wide diversity of unusual phenomena with the same success as the inclusive fitness theory.

Answer: D

In detail-oriented passages, answers to questions about the author’s opinion will most likely be found around major keywords.

According to the author, the inclusive fitness theory “has helped to explain” (line 20) and can be “applied usefully to” (lines 25–26) some instances of kin recognition.

“But” (line 48), there may be other explanations for kin recognition. That’s (D). For the record:

(A) Quite the opposite. According to the first paragraph, understanding of mechanisms has increased despite a lack of explanation for why kin recognition occurs.

(B) Again, opposite of what the author states.

Lines 12–19 directly show how the inclusive fitness theory runs in contrast to the traditional evolutionary theory.

(C) There is no suggestion on the author’s part that theories need to ignore any characteristics of any organisms.

(E) The author doesn’t mention any current theories outside of the inclusive fitness theory. However, by virtue of the last paragraph conflicting with the
inclusive fitness theory, it’s evident that the author would not find that theory to be the most successful.

4. Which one of the following most accurately describes the function of the last sentence of the second paragraph?

(A) to draw attention to behavior that further complicates the set of facts to be explained by any theory of natural selection that accounts for kin recognition
(B) to explain why cannibals in most species eat their kin less often than do cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles
(C) to describe behavior that lends support to the account of kin recognition presented in the second paragraph
(D) to offer evidence that the behavior of cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles is unexplainable
(E) to imply that the described behavior is more relevant to the issue at hand than is the immediately preceding material

Answer: A

When a sentence is presented in contrast to previous sentences, expect a wrong answer to be completely opposite of what you’re looking for.

To understand the function of the last sentence of the second paragraph, you need to remember the function of everything that came before it. The bulk of the second paragraph was about the tadpoles that avoided eating siblings in order to improve the survival of their genetic lineage. This example was provided in support of the inclusive fitness theory. However, the last sentence begins with “interestingly,” suggesting that not all is as it seems. Sure enough, just as we’re being led to believe that tadpoles would spare family members to protect the genes, we learn that some tadpoles will eat their siblings after all—so as not to die from hunger. So, the Purpose seems to provide an instance that goes contrary to the other evidence, making the inclusive fitness theory seem inapplicable in certain cases. Scan the answer choices for a match:

(A) This seems like a good candidate. Just as we were being lulled into believing that the inclusive fitness theory was a winner, along comes this fact that throws a monkey wrench into the system. This is a match to our prediction.

For the record:

(B) Outside the Scope. The fact in the last sentence is referring only to the spadefoot toad tadpoles, and makes no comparison to other species.

(C) 180. This “interesting” note runs contrary to everything that came before it.

(D) Extreme. While it may question the validity of the inclusive fitness theory, it doesn’t necessarily make the tadpoles’ behavior unexplainable. In fact, it is
explained—they’re ver y hungr y and are more interested in saving themselves.

(E) 180. The information that precedes the last sentence is not less relevant. It’s plenty relevant as support for why the inclusive fitness theory is plausible.

5. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following statements about the mechanism by which cannibal spadefoot toad tadpoles recognize their kin?

(A) It is not dependent solely on the use of visual cues.
(B) It is neither utilized nor possessed by those tadpoles that do not become cannibalistic.
(C) It does not always allow a tadpole to distinguish its siblings from tadpoles that are not siblings.
(D) It is rendered unnecessary by physiological changes accompanying the dietary shift from omnivorousness to carnivorousness. 
(E) It could not have developed in a species in which all members are omnivorous.

Answer: A

Beware of answer choices that discuss information Outside the Scope of the passage.

The mechanism of a tadpole for recognizing kin is described in lines 39–42. It involves nipping at other tadpoles to determine whether they are siblings or not.

(A) is definitely supported by the information in the passage. Nipping on other tadpoles is not a visual act, so the mechanism seems to be at least partially based on taste or touch. For the record:

(B) Outside the Scope. We know this is the behavior of cannibalistic tadpoles, but we don’t know what non cannibalistic tadpoles do. For all we know, they may nip at other tadpoles, too. In fact, according to the passage, tadpoles can become cannibalistic after first accidentally eating another tadpole. So, it doesn’t seem much of a stretch to consider that some noncarnivorous tadpoles might also nip other tadpoles.

(C) Outside the Scope. Based on the last sentence, we know that tadpoles will still eat siblings in extreme circumstance. However, that’s not because the
mechanism doesn’t work—it’s because of hunger. There’s no support for this.

(D) 180. The tadpoles utilize this mechanism after changing physiologically and becoming carnivorous.

(E) 180. Line 32 states that all of these tadpoles start life as omnivores. Furthermore, we don’t have any information about other species beyond the tadpoles, so we can’t infer this.

6. The passage states which one of the following about the mechanisms that enable organisms to recognize their close genetic relatives?

(A) The mechanisms are most easily explained if we assume that they have a similar purpose in all species regardless of the species’ social or mental complexities.
(B) The mechanisms have become more clearly understood, prompting interest in the purpose they serve.
(C) The mechanisms have become the focus of theoretical attention only since the 1960s.
(D) The detailed workings of these mechanisms must be better understood before their purpose can be fully explained.
(E) The mechanisms operate differently in different species even when they serve exactly the same function.

Answer: B

Answers that incorporate figures and dates often misapply that information. Be wary of these answers.

Most of the passage involves theories to explain kin recognition. Mechanisms are mostly discussed early in the first paragraph. In fact, the answer to this question is clearly presented in lines 4–7: Improvements in understanding these mechanisms have led to questions about why they occur. That’s (B). For the record:

(A) Outside the Scope. The first sentence says that mechanisms exist throughout the animal kingdom, regardless of complexity. However, that doesn’t mean that we should assume they have a similar purpose in all species. In fact, by the two examples in the second and third paragraph, we get the sense that mechanisms can serve multiple purposes.

(C) FUD. Some people might be tempted by this because it uses “1960s” from the passage. However, the 1960s is only when the inclusive fitness theory was developed. For all we know, there were many other theories developed long before the 1960s.

(D) Outside the Scope. While the passage may suggest that we still don’t have a full explanation of their purpose, the author never states that this is because we need more understanding of the mechanisms.

(E) Outside the Scope. While the passage may discuss different purposes for the mechanisms, there’s no description of how similar or different the mechanisms operate.

7. The information in the passage most strongly suggests that the fact that most honeybees exist only to nurture relatives

(A) was not known to be true before the 1960s 
(B) can be explained only if we assume that these members are in turn nurtured by the relatives they nurture
(C) is what led most biologists to reject the traditional view of evolution
(D) calls into question the view that evolution proceeds by natural selection
(E) is difficult to explain without at least supplementing the traditional view of evolution with further explanatory hypotheses
 
Answer: E

Taking note of where all examples appear, even seemingly minor ones, can save research time when questions ask about them.

The honeybees were mentioned at the end of the first paragraph. According to the paragraph, the honeybees’ behavior of nurturing relatives was previously
mysterious,” but the inclusive fitness theory helped explain it. We want an answer choice that’s consistent with this prediction.

(A) The behavior was known, it was just unexplained. Eliminate.

(B) There’s no discussion of this kind of reciprocal nurturing. Eliminate.

(C) While the new theory helps to explain this behavior, the behavior was simply described as previously mysterious. This suggests the behavior was merely an enigma and not necessarily a catalyst for dismissing traditional theory. Eliminate.

(D) is a grand distortion. The inclusive fitness theory (which helps explain the honeybees’ behavior) still states that evolution proceeds by natural selection— just in a different way from what traditional theories state. Eliminate.

(E) is a match. It was mysterious under traditional theories, so some supplement (in this case, the inclusive fitness theory) was needed to dispel some of the mystery.

8. Which one of the following would, if true, most help to undermine the author’s evaluation in the last sentence of the passage?

(A) Many tiger salamander larvae infected by the deadly bacterium are not cannibalistic. 
(B) The factor that determines which tiger salamander larvae are carnivorous and which are omnivorous is not contained in the genetic makeup of the larvae.
(C) Kin recognition helps tiger salamanders avoid inbreeding that may be life-threatening to their offspring.
(D) Noncannibalistic tiger salamanders tend to produce fewer offspring than cannibalistic tiger salamanders.
(E) Cannibalistic tiger salamanders are immune to certain diseases to which noncannibalistic salamanders are not.

Answer: C

Classic ways of weakening arguments in Logical Reasoning will work equally effectively in Reading Comprehension Logic Reasoning questions.

In the last sentence, the author concludes that kin recognition in tiger salamanders can be explained as a means for preserving their own life and not as a means for aiding their relatives’ survival. While the evidence regarding the deadly bacterium definitely supports kin recognition being used to preserve the individual, there is no evidence to say that kin recognition is not used to aid relatives’ survival. The author ignores the possibility that kin recognition may serve to protect oneself and one’s relatives. To weaken the claim, the correct answer choice will show a way that a tiger salamander would use kin recognition to protect someone other than itself.

(A) This has no relevance to the argument. What’s important is not whether the disease affects cannibalistic or noncannibalistic salamanders, but whether or not it affects kin and kin recognition. Eliminate.

(B) This discusses what makes salamanders carnivorous or omnivorous, but it has no bearing on why salamanders recognize kin. Eliminate.

(C) gives us a fact that would weaken the author’s claim. If this were true, then kin recognition would provide a way for salamanders to protect their offspring—thus making kin recognition valuable beyond survival of the individual. By protecting potential family, this weakens the author’s claim that kin recognition is simply a self-serving device.

For the record:

(D) This answer misapplies some information from the first paragraph about the number of offspring (part of traditional evolutionary views). However, once again, the number of offspring a salamander has is not directly relevant to the reason for being able to recognize kin.

(E) Even if this were true, according to the passage, they’re still immune to the one deadly bacterium that’s mentioned. And, because that particular bacterium is more deadly when consumed through kin, the greater immunity to other diseases isn’t necessarily relevant to kin recognition.

It’s good to note for this question that the correct answer is the only one that focuses on kin recognition, the Topic of the argument the question asks us to weaken.

GittinGud · Answer

23 minutes, 5/8 correct. Can someone please help me with Q5? Option A says 'does not solely rely on visual clues'. This means that the tadpole has sight and uses visual clues. But nowhere in the passage is it mentioned that the tadpoles can see. They might be blind, sensing their surroundings through some other mechanism. Option A assumes that the tadpoles have sight.

Help is greatly appreciated. THanks!

Help is greatly appreciated. THanks!

GMATCoachBen · Answer

GittinGud  "does NOT SOLELY rely on visual clues" does NOT mean the tadpole has sight, it just means that <100% of its ability to recognize kin comes from visual cues -- it's possible that 0% could come from visual cues.

As a general rule, "not all" mathematically translates to <100%.

This question is a great example of a very common GMAT RC pattern I call "Infer Opposite" -- the wording of the answer is a negated version of what's said in the passage. As a very simple example, if the passage says "X is more than Y", the answer might say "Y is less than X".

The passage says "Yet the cannibals have a procedure of discrimination whereby they NIP at other tadpoles, eating non-siblings but releasing siblings". "Nip" is evidence of a mechanism other than "visual cues". So, A is a perfect match for this "Infer Opposite" pattern.

HustleG · Answer

For anyone trying to figure out why option C is wrong in question 4, there are actually 3 paragraphs instead of 2 in the passage. The third paragraph starts with 'But there may be other reasons why organisms recognize kin.' Therefore, the last sentence of the second paragraph, by using the keyword interestingly, suggests that there may be other reasons for kin recognition, further complicating the issue.

I hope this helps clarify Q4!

I hope this helps clarify Q4!

mSKR · Answer

Yes , it makes sense of explanation of Q4. I agree with C option now. thanks!

bm2201  @Saajjad1994: can you please split the 2nd para into 2 parts as pointed out by  HustleG

Please also post the explanation of Q8.

I am confused with Option A .

Argument says: cannibalistic tiger salamanders don't eat their kins in order to save their lives not to spare kins' lives.

The conclusion can be weakened:
optionA: Even they don't eat any meat, still they can be infected with deadly bacterium. It means eating kin or not kin would not make difference. The whole arguments is shattered on the basis of which conclusion was made. Now this conclusion has no meaning. That was my reasoning for optionA.
I should reject A because this group is not our scope of focus?

Please suggest  GMATNinja   AndrewN   GMATCoachBen

Thanks!

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  mSKR . Understanding the relationship between the last two sentences of the passage should help you appreciate why (A) does NOT undermine anything the author says in the last line.

Note the transition word in  then . This is a cue that tells that, based on the information that has come before, we can conclude what is about to follow. Essentially, it serves in the same capacity as  thus  or  therefore  at the head of a sentence. If you look at that previous line in the passage, you will see that it says exactly what (A) lays out: that cannibalistic (tiger salamander) larvae that avoid harmful bacteria by not eating their infected kin have a better chance of survival. We want an answer instead that would make us think that the tiger salamanders, larvae or not, were refraining from such behavior out of consideration for the other organisms. Choice (C) touches on this next-of-kin relationship by mentioning a behavior that the salamanders abstain from  in order to  protect  their offspring , organisms that are not themselves. Such information goes directly against the last line of the passage. Apparently, tiger salamanders would not be so self-centered after all.

I hope that helps.

- Andrew

VerbalBot · Answer

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Mechanisms for recognizing kin are found throughout the plant and

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Mechanisms for recognizing kin are found throughout the plant and

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