In the early 1900s, most astronomers mistakenly believed that 66 perce

Question

In the early 1900s, most astronomers mistakenly believed that 66 percent of the sun’s substance was iron. As a graduate student at Harvard University in the 1920s, Cecilia Payne—later a professor of astronomy there—argued pioneeringly that the sun is instead composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Her claim, though substantiated by the evidence and later uniformly accepted, encountered strong resistance among professional astronomers.

The orthodox view that the sun was mainly iron was buttressed by the knowledge that Earth and all known asteroids contain iron. Also, the evidence from spectroscopy—a technique used to identify chemicals by the distinctive spectral properties of the light patterns they emit when heated to incandescence—was generally taken to show that iron was the predominant element in the sun. But how could a body composed largely of iron generate the huge energy output of the sun? The eminent British physicist Lord Kelvin had hypothesized that the sun was continuously contracting and that the resulting compression had raised the temperature of the sun’s materials sufficiently to account for its enormous heat. But, given the usual assumptions about the sun’s size and rate of contraction, it followed that the sun’s age would be about 20 million years; evidence from the fossil record, however, strongly suggested that the sun had warmed Earth for billions of years. For Payne, this meant that the “iron” hypothesis had to be reexamined, together with the extensive spectroscopic data alleged to support it.

Preliminary examination of the spectroscopic data convinced Payne that they lent themselves to multiple readings. She suspected that preconceptions about the sun’s makeup as being mainly iron might have led to skewed interpretations of that data, and this led her to subject the data to rigorous critical scrutiny and review. Analyzed without preconceptions, she found, the data could be consistently read as indicating that, while it does indeed contain iron (along with other elements found on Earth), 90 percent of the sun is hydrogen and most of the remainder is helium. Most astronomers at the time dismissed Payne’s interpretation, and some sought to explain it away simply by claiming that what she had examined was data about the sun’s outer surface rather than its interior.

Absent a generally accepted explanation of how hydrogen and helium could produce the sun’s energy, Payne’s findings could not easily override her contemporaries’ preconceptions. We now know that the sun’s heat is generated through nuclear fusion: the sun’s gravitational force compresses together atoms of hydrogen, causing a nuclear reaction. This reaction produces enormous amounts of energy while forming helium and other elements. But this process— so well charted today that even elementary physics textbooks discuss it—was inadequately understood in the 1920s. The emergence of that understanding— which relied on Einstein’s equation governing the relationship between mass and energy—eventually provided strong confirmation of Payne’s results.    1 
 1. The passage provides enough information to answer which one of the following questions?

(A) Does the iron content of Earth exceed 50 percent of its total mass?
(B) Who first proved that the sun generates heat from hydrogen by nuclear fusion?
(C) Do any objects in the solar system other than Earth and the sun contain iron?
(D) What percentage of the sun’s mass is composed of iron?
(E) Can the fusion of atoms other than hydrogen atoms produce energy?

2 
 2. The passage provides enough information to answer which one of the following questions?

(A) Did Payne at any time believe that the sun was mainly composed of iron?
(B) When Payne first proposed her theory about the sun's composition did any other astronomers fully accept it?
(C) In what year did Payne first receive definitive recognition for her work from other scientists?
(D) Was Payne ever offered an academic appointment?
(E) Did Payne play a significant role in showing the mechanism by which nuclear fusion occurs?

3 
 3. The passage provides the strongest support for believing that some scientists in the 1920s held which one of the following views regarding Payne’s interpretation of the spectroscopic data relating to the sun?

(A) The methodology she used in analyzing the data was outdated, and thus her findings were of doubtful validity.
(B) Her interpretation of the data was remarkably accurate and proved the traditional interpretation of the data to be incorrect.
(C) Her findi romising and warranted serious consideration, but no definitive assessment of them could be made without verification of certain details.
(D) Her interpretation of the data was not entirely ill founded, but the overall conclusions she drew from the data were wrong.
(E) Her interpretation and the overall conclusions she drew from it were correct, but those conclusions were of little scientific consequences.

4 
 4. Based on the information in the passage, it can be inferred that the author holds which one of the following views?

(A) The fact that Payne’s research findings were not found convincing by many of her contemporaries was not due to any major mistake in her scientific reasoning.
(B) Previous to Payne, interpreters of the spectroscopic data had deliberately disregarded data that suggested the sun sustained some hydrogen.
(C) The “iron” hypothesis would not have been accepted for so long were it not for the prominence and prestige of Lord Kelvin.
(D) The resistance to her findings that Payne encountered among professional astronomers is uncharacteristic of the way science generally operates.
(E) The discovery of nuclear fusion might have been delayed by several decades if Payne had not determined that the sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.

5 
 5. It can be inferred from information in the passage that the scientists who tried to explain away Payne’s findings by claiming that she had misconstrued the relevance of her data assumed which one of the following to be true?

(A) It is impossible to generate heat through nuclear fusion.
(B) The inside of the sun is not of the same composition as its outer surface.
(C) The sun contained insufficient hydrogen to have warmed Earth for billions of years.
(D) Payne’s preconceptions about the “iron” hypothesis biased her analysis of spectroscopic
(E) Spatiroscopy will not detect the presence of iron if the iron is in an object as far away from Earth as the sun is.

6 
 6. Which one of the following statements about spectroscopy is most strongly supported by information in the passage?

(A) Its use during the 1920s was generally confined to the field of astronomy.
(B) It yielded data about the sun’s composition that Payne initially doubted but ultimately came to accept.
(C) It played a crucial, though often unacknowledged, role in the emergence of our present-day understanding of the process of nuclear fusion.
(D) It was regarded by certain prominent scientists in the 1920s as an unproven tool that produced data of often questionable reliability.
(E) It was a technique advanced enough by the 1920s to detect the presence in the sun of elements that constituted considerably less than 10 percent of its mass.

7 
 7. The author’s discussion of nuclear fusion in the last paragraph serves primarily to

(A) illustrate the impact of Payne’s findings on a discipline related to, although distinct from, the one in which she ultimately made her mark
(B) explain in part the reactions of Payne’s fellow scientists to her interpretation of the data that she analyzed
(C) clarify an underlying reason for Payne’s rejection of the “iron" hypothesis
(D) show how ultimately to be modified in light of later scientific developments
(E) demonstrate that Payne’s reliance on incorrect data did not prevent her from reaching a sound hypothesis

RC Butler 2022  -  Practice Two RC Passages Everyday.   
Passage # 35 Date: 24-Jan-2022
 This question is a part of RC Butler 2022 .  Click here for Details

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100mitra · Answer

Paraphrasing:   - {16 Mins 5/7 correct}
  Para 1:   1920s, Cecilia Payne argued pioneeringly that the sun is instead composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Her claim was uniformly accepted, which earlier encountered strong resistance
  Para 2:   The orthodox view evidence from spectroscopy to show that iron was the predominant element in the sun. 
Discussion about the hypothesis by British physicist Lord Kelvin about suns age, weight and energy generation led, Cecilia Payne re – examine this hypothesis with the extensive spectroscopic data alleged to support.
  Para 3:   Cecilia Payne interpretation and spectroscopic analysis of the sun compositions and how sun generate energy, was dismissed by most and put aside by claiming that what she had examined was data about the sun’s outer surface rather than its interior.
  Para 4:   Payne’s findings could not easily override her contemporaries’ preconceptions, which was needed in her explanation like nuclear fusion, and like Einstein’s equation governing the relationship between mass and energy, which provided strong confirmation of Payne’s results.

1. The passage provides enough information to answer which one of the following questions?  
  Explanation:   as mentioned in the passage, 
 Statement 1 : “The orthodox view that the sun was mainly iron was buttressed by the knowledge 
that Earth and all known asteroids contain iron”
“Also, the evidence from spectroscopy”
 Statement 2:  “For Payne, this meant that the “iron” hypothesis had to be re-examined, together with the extensive spectroscopic data alleged to support it”
 Statement 3:  “She suspected that preconceptions about the sun’s makeup as being mainly iron might have led to skewed interpretations of that data, and this led her to subject the data to rigorous critical scrutiny and review.”

(A) Does the iron content of Earth exceed 50 percent of its total mass?
  Wrong:   it was believed, not proven, as mentioned in the passage,” In the early 1900s, most astronomers mistakenly believed that 66 percent of the sun’s substance was iron”

(B) Who first proved that the sun generates heat from hydrogen by nuclear fusion?
  Wrong:   Trap! Not mentioned in the passage, “Absent a generally accepted explanation of how hydrogen and helium could produce the sun’s energy, Payne’s findings could not easily override her contemporaries’ preconceptions.”

(C) Do any objects in the solar system other than Earth and the sun contain iron?
  Correct: as explained above, it was orthodox assumption many believed, but Payne’s interpretation and spectroscopic analysis, explained well.

(D) What percentage of the sun’s mass is composed of iron?
  Wrong:   Trap! and out of scope! Some data is mentioned in the passage, but either it is orthodox believe or dismissed by most.

(E) Can the fusion of atoms other than hydrogen atoms produce energy?
  Wrong:  Out of scope!

2. The passage provides enough information to answer which one of the following questions?  
(A) Did Payne at any time believe that the sun was mainly composed of iron?
  Wrong:   as mentioned in the passage, 
“She suspected that preconceptions about the sun’s makeup as being mainly iron might have led to skewed interpretations of that data, and this led her to subject the data to rigorous critical scrutiny and review. 
Analysed without preconceptions, she found, the data could be consistently read as indicating that, while it does indeed contain iron”

(B) When Payne first proposed her theory about the sun's composition did any other astronomers fully accept it?
  Wrong:  Trap! As mentioned in the passage, 
“Most astronomers at the time dismissed Payne’s interpretation, and some sought to explain it away simply by claiming that what she had examined was data about the sun’s outer surface rather than its interior”

(C) In what year did Payne first receive definitive recognition for her work from other scientists?
  Wrong:   Out of scope, not mentioned in the passage, we are shared only about 1920 evidence.

(D) Was Payne ever offered an academic appointment?
  Correct: How could it be correct? As mentioned in the passage, 
“For Payne, this meant that the “iron” hypothesis had to be re-examined, 
together with the extensive spectroscopic data alleged to support it”

(E) Did Payne play a significant role in showing the mechanism by which nuclear fusion occurs?
  Wrong:   Payne only demonstrated composition of sun, mostly by hydrogen and reminder helium, mechanism is assumed to be well known to all, but indeed explanation expected in Payne’s research.

3. The passage provides the strongest support for believing that 
some scientists in the 1920s held which one of the following views 
regarding Payne’s interpretation of the spectroscopic data relating to the sun?  
(A) The methodology she used in analysing the data was outdated, 
and thus her findings were of doubtful validity.
  Wrong:   not about methodology used for analysing the data

(B) Her interpretation of the data was remarkably accurate and proved the 
traditional interpretation of the data to be incorrect.
  Wrong:   not about interpretation of data comparison between modern and traditional
 
(C) Her finding promising and warranted serious consideration, 
but no definitive assessment of them could be made without verification of certain details
  Wrong:   not about promising and warning serious consideration.

(D) Her interpretation of the data was not entirely ill founded, 
but the overall conclusions she drew from the data were wrong.
  Correct: as mentioned in the passage,   
 Statement 1:  “Her claim, though substantiated by the evidence and later uniformly accepted, 
encountered strong resistance among professional astronomers”
 Statement 2:  “Most astronomers at the time dismissed Payne’s interpretation, 
and some sought to explain it away simply by claiming that what she had examined was data 
about the sun’s outer surface rather than its interior”

(E) Her interpretation and the overall conclusions she drew from it were correct, 
but those conclusions were of little scientific consequences.
  Wrong:   Payne’s conclusion were not scientific consequences; 
it was with the extensive spectroscopic data alleged to support it

4. Based on the information in the passage, it can be inferred that 
the author holds which one of the following views?

(A) The fact that Payne’s research findings were not found convincing by many of her contemporaries 
was not due to any major mistake in her scientific reasoning.
  Correct: it was due to, “The orthodox view that the sun was mainly iron was buttressed 
by the knowledge that Earth and all known asteroids contain iron.”

(B) Previous to Payne, interpreters of the spectroscopic data had deliberately disregarded data 
that suggested the sun sustained some hydrogen.
  Wrong:   Out of scope, not mentioned in the passage

(C) The “iron” hypothesis would not have been accepted for so long were 
it not for the prominence and prestige of Lord Kelvin
  Wrong:   Irrelevant, Lord kelvin hypothesis was for 
“the sun was continuously contracting and that the resulting compression had 
raised the temperature of the sun’s materials sufficiently to account for its enormous heat”.

(D) The resistance to her findings that Payne encountered among professional astronomers is 
uncharacteristic of the way science generally operates.
  Wrong:   Irrelevant, passage tone has no information about it.

(E) The discovery of nuclear fusion might have been delayed by several decades 
if Payne had not determined that the sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium
  Wrong:   Irrelevant, passage tone has no information about it.

5. It can be inferred from information in the passage 
that the scientists who tried to explain away Payne’s findings by claiming 
that she had misconstrued the relevance of her data 
assumed which one of the following to be true?  
(A) It is impossible to generate heat through nuclear fusion.
  Wrong:  It not about nuclear fusion, but about sun’s composition present in it.

(B) The inside of the sun is not of the same composition as its outer surface.
  Correct: as mentioned in the passage, 
“Most astronomers at the time dismissed Payne’s interpretation, and some sought to 
explain it away simply by claiming that what she had examined was data 
about the sun’s outer surface rather than its interior”

(C) The sun contained insufficient hydrogen to have warmed Earth for billions of years.
  Wrong:   It was for hypothesis of lord Kelvin

(D) Payne’s preconceptions about the “iron” hypothesis biased her analysis of spectroscopic
  Wrong:   In fact, it supported her interpretation and analysis

(E) Spatiroscopy will not detect the presence of iron 
if the iron is in an object as far away from Earth as the sun is.
  Wrong:   Out of scope, much more details needed 
not mentioned in the passage, to come to this conclusion.

6. Which one of the following statements about 
spectroscopy is most strongly supported by information in the passage?

(A) Its use during the 1920s was generally confined to the field of astronomy.
  Wrong:   Out of scope, other use of spectroscopy is not mentioned in the passage

(B) It yielded data about the sun’s composition that Payne initially doubted but ultimately came to accept.
  Wrong:   as mentioned in the passage, 
“Preliminary examination of the spectroscopic data convinced Payne that they lent themselves to multiple readings”

(C) It played a crucial, though often unacknowledged, 
role in the emergence of our present-day understanding of the process of nuclear fusion
  Wrong:   does not mention about the process of nuclear fusion

(D) It was regarded by certain prominent scientists in the 1920s 
as an unproven tool 
that produced data of often questionable reliability.
  Wrong:   Irrelevant, passage does not infer this information

(E) It was a technique advanced enough by the 1920s 
to detect the presence in the sun of elements 
that constituted considerably less than 10 percent of its mass.
  Correct: Trap! as mentioned in the passage, 
“The orthodox view that the sun was mainly iron was buttressed 
by the knowledge that Earth and all known asteroids contain iron. 
Also, the evidence from spectroscopy—a technique used 
to identify chemicals by the distinctive spectral properties of the light patterns 
they emit when heated to incandescence”

7. The author’s discussion of nuclear fusion in the last paragraph serves primarily to  
(A) illustrate the impact of Payne’s findings on a discipline related to, 
although distinct from, 
the one in which she ultimately made her mark
  Wrong:   Trap! This not about impact of Payne’s finding, 
but about supporting additional to a similar theory

(B) explain in part the reactions of Payne’s fellow scientists to her interpretation of the data that she analysed
  Correct: as mentioned in the passage, “Payne’s findings could not easily override her contemporaries’ preconceptions.”

(C) clarify an underlying reason for Payne’s rejection of the “iron" hypothesis
  Wrong:   Not related to “iron” hypothesis

(D) show how ultimately to be modified in light of later scientific developments
  Wrong:   Not about modification, 
but additional development to Payne’s research, to be a part of it.

(E) demonstrate that Payne’s reliance on incorrect data 
did not prevent her from reaching a sound hypothesis
  Wrong:  Out of scope

Its_me_aka_ak · Answer

Kindly explain 7 again. i chose C so compare C and B
for me, last paragraph basically is there to tell that the hypothesis has just one flaw or it woudve been accepted there and then but got proven later by Albert

In the early 1900s, most astronomers mistakenly believed that 66 perce

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In the early 1900s, most astronomers mistakenly believed that 66 perce

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