It is generally accepted that woodland clearings were utilized by

Question

It is generally accepted that woodland clearings
were utilized by Mesolithic human populations
(populations in Europe roughly 7,000 to 12,000 years
ago) for food procurement, Whether there was
  (5)   deliberate removal of tree cover to attract grazing
animals or whether naturally created clearings just
afforded opportunistic hunting, the common view is
that clearing had an economic use. The archaeological
evidence for this, however, is at best circumstantial.
  (10)   Some locales where the presence of clearings has 
been demonstrated in the paleoecological record of
vegetation have also yielded human artifacts from
around the same time, but the two kinds of evidence
are never securely linked, Furthermore, artifactual
  (15)   evidence that preparation of animals for human
consumption took place within or near such clearings
is generally lacking.

Most of the evidence invoked in favor of the
resource-procurement model for clearings comes from
  (20)   ethnography rather than archaeology, and principally
from the recognition that some recent premodern
populations used fire to increase grazing areas. But
while some ethnographic evidence has been used to
bolster the resource-procurement model, other
  (25)   ethnographic evidence may suggest a different vision,
& noneconomic one, of why clearings may have been
deliberately created and/or used.

Geographer Yi-Fu Tuan argues that right up
through the modern era, human behavior has been
  (30)   driven by fear of the wilderness. While we might be
tempted to sec this kind of anxiety as a product of
modern urban life, it is clear that such fears are also
manifest in preliteratc and nonurban socicties. If we
apply this insight to the Mesolithic era, our view of the
  (35)   purpose and use of woodland clearings may change.

We have recently become aware of the
importance of woodland paths in prehistory. The fact
that Mesolithic human populations moved around the
landscape is not a new idea. However, the fact that they
  (40)   may have done so along prescribed pathways has
only recently come to the fore. I propose that one of
the primary motivators in establishing paths may
have been fear of the wooded surroundings—whether
fear of harm from wildlife or spirits, or of simply
  (45)   getting lost.

From this view an alternative hypothesis may be
developed. First, paths become established and acquire
a measure of long-term permanence. Then this
permanence leads to concentration of activity in some
  (50)   areas (near the paths) rather than others (away from
the paths). This allows us to legitimately consider
wilderness as a motivating concept in the Mesolithic,
and may force us to consider the environment as more
than “backdrop.” And finalty, it may lead us to
  (55)   explain some clearings as purely social phenomena,
since where paths meet, wider clearings emerge as
corners are cut and intersections become convenient
spots for resting.    1 
 1. Which one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage?

(A) Though fear of the wilderness is commonly thought to be a modern urban phenomenon, archaeological evidence suggests that the concept of wilderness may go as far back as the Mesolithic period.
(B) Though the resource-procurement model for Mesolithic woodland clearings is widely accepted, the available evidence provides comparable support for an alternative, noneconomic model.
(C) Though ethnographic evidence appears to support the resource-procurement model for woodland clearings, archaeological evidence suggests that clearings were used for multiple purposes by Mesolithic human populations.
(D) Evidence of woodland clearings from the paleoccological record of plant types may lend support to the hypothesis that Mesolithic human populations moved around the landscape via established paths.
(E) Ethnography provides clear and unambiguous insight into the purpose and use of woodland clearings during the Mesolithic period.

2 
 2. According to the resource-procurement model for clearings. Mesolithic human populations engaged in which one of the following practices?

(A) They traveled on preestablished pathways.
(B) They hunted animals that grated in clearings.
(C) They grazed domesticated animals in clearings.
(D) They used clearings as resting sites.
(E) They planted crops in clearings.

3 
 3. Which one of the following is most clearly an example of the kind of evidence that would lend support to the author's proposal in the next-to-last paragraph?

(A) Mesolithic artwork that appears to depict woodland paths and clearings
(B) the ubiquity of paths and roads in areas densely settled by humans
(C) maps showing pathways used by certain recent premodern human populations
(D) survey results showing that modem urban dwellers experience heightened anxiety in wilderness areas
(E) rituals performed by certain recent premodern populations for the purpose of protection in the forest

4 
 4. The author suggests that which one of the following may have been true of Mesolithic human populations?

(A) They were the first people to use fire to increase grazing areas.
(B) They were the first people to travel in prescribed pathways.
(C) They worshipped nature.
(D) They possessed a concept of wilderness.
(E) They had a complex economic system.

5 
 5. In the thlrd paragraph, the author mentions Yi-Fu Tuan's argument primarily in order to

(A) render doubtful the hypothesis about clearings that the author seeks to challenge
(B) exemplify the kind of argument about clearings that the author seeks to challenge
(C) give credit to the scholar who developed the hypothesis about clearings that the author favors
(D) lay the groundwork for the hypothesis about clearings that the author outlines
(E) point out the similarity between Tuan's view about clearings and the author's view

6 
 6. It can be inferred that the author would be more likely to endorse the resource-procurement model for clearings if this model were supported by which one of the following kinds of evidence?

(A) artifactual evidence that it was near or within clearings that Mesolithic human populations processed animals for human consumption
(B) ethnographic evidence that certain recent premodem populations used clearings for resource procurement
(C) experimental evidence that the creation of clearings is an effective means of attracting grazing animals
(D) paleoecological evidence that the majority of woodland clearings during the Mesolithic period were the result of wildfires
(E) statistical evidence that there was a significant increase in the number of woodland clearings during the Mesolithic period

7 
 7. Which one of the following comes closest to capturing what the phrase "purely social phenomena" means in line 55?

(A) phenomena that arise as by-products of a society's noneconomic practices
(B) phenomena that are universal and unique to human societies
(C) phenomena that serve the purpose of strengthening ties between a society's members
(D) phenomena that are intentionally created by human actions to produce a social benefit
(E) phenomena that reveal information about a society's cultural and economic development

8 
 8. Which one of the following arguments is most closely analogous to the author's argument in the second paragraph?

(A) The prosecution's case against the defendant rests almost entirely on circumstantial evidence. The defense, in contrast, has provided direct evidence that establishes that the defendant could not have committed the crime in question.
(B) The prosecution maintains that the physical evidence presented establishes the defendant's guilt. However, that same physical evidence can be interpreted in such a way that it instead establishes the defendant's innocence.
(C) The prosecution's case against the defendant rests entirely on circumstantial evidence. This suggests that there is no direct evidence to support the charge against the defendant.
(D) The prosecution's primary witness against the defendant is known to be untrustworthy. The defense, in contrast, has provided a parade of witnesses whose reputations are beyond reproach.
(E) The prosecution's case against the defendant rests almost entirely on circumstantial evidence. However, there is other circumstantial evidence that suggests that the defendant is innocent.

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

2. According to the resource-procurement model for clearings. Mesolithic human populations engaged in which one of the following practices?

Explanation

This question asks which answer choice about the resourceprocurement model is explicitly stated in the passage. Evaluate each answer choice against the passage to find an idea that is explicitly stated. Be wary of answer choices that introduce new ideas or that contradict the passage.

A. No.  Movement along paths supports the noneconomic model.

B.  Yes.   This is a paraphrase of  lines 4–7.

C. No.  The passage does not discuss domesticated animals.

D. No.  Use of clearings as resting sites supports the noneconomic model.

E. No.  The passage does not discuss planting crops.

Answer: B

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

5. In the thlrd paragraph, the author mentions Yi-Fu Tuan's argument primarily in order to

Explanation

This question asks why the author mentions Yi-Fu Tuan’s argument in the third paragraph. Return to the passage to determine the context of the third paragraph: the end of the second paragraph states that ethnographic evidence suggests a noneconomic model for Mesolithic woodland clearings, and Tuan’s argument provides the basis for this model.

Evaluate each answer choice against this function. Be wary of answer choices that incorrectly describe the function of the third paragraph or that describe the function of a different part of the passage.

A. No.  Tuan’s argument sets the stage for the noneconomic model.

B. No.  Tuan’s argument has no relation to the resource procurement model.

C. No.  Tuan’s argument is not about the clearings themselves but about a driver of human behavior in general.

D.  Yes.   Tuan’s argument is that fear of the wooded surroundings is one of the main motivators in establishing paths in premodern societies, and this argument provides the basis for the noneconomic model.

E. No.  Tuan does not have a view on the clearings.

Answer: D

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

6. It can be inferred that the author would be more likely to endorse the resource-procurement model for clearings if this model were supported by which one of the following kinds of evidence?

Explanation

This question asks which answer choice is supported by the ideas of tone of the passage. Return to the passage to determine why the author is not convinced of the resource procurement model for clearings: in the first paragraph, the passage states that this model lacks corroborating archaeological evidence. Evaluate each answer choice against this criticism to find one that responds to it. Be wary of answer choices that introduce irrelevant ideas.

A.  Yes.  Lines 14–17  indicate that a lack of such evidence is a weakness of the economic model for clearings.

B. No.  Such evidence already exists, as described in the first paragraph.

C. No.  The passage does not criticize the model because it hasnot been reproduced in controlled experiments.

D. No.  Evidence that some premodern societies used fire to increase grazing areas is given in support of the economic (resource-procurement) model  (lines 18-22) , so such evidence might undermine that model.

E. No.  An increase in the number of woodland clearings would provide little evidence of the reason for the clearings.

Answer: A

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

7. Which one of the following comes closest to capturing what the phrase "purely social phenomena" means in line 55?

Explanation

This question asks for the meaning of the phrase  “purely social phenomena.”  Return to the passage to determine the context of this phrase: the final passage describes an alternative hypothesis to the common view that clearings had an economic use  (lines 4–8) . This alternative hypothesis is that fear motivated the establishment of paths  (lines 41–45) , which then became permanent and attracted activity  (lines 48–51) . Evaluate each answer choice against this contrast (economic versus purely social). Be wary of answer choices that define  “purely social”  in a way not implied by the passage.

A.  Yes.   The passage contrasts the economic and noneconomic models for clearings.

B. No.  The passage does not discuss phenomena that are unique to human societies.

C. No.  The passage does not discuss phenomena that strengthen communal ties.

D. No.  The passage does not discuss phenomena intentionally created for social benefit.

E. No.  The passage does not discuss phenomena that reveal cultural and economic development.

Answer: A

Sajjad1994 · Answer

Explanation

3. Which one of the following is most clearly an example of the kind of evidence that would lend support to the author's proposal in the next-to-last paragraph?

Explanation

Treat this question like a Strengthen question. Focus on the proposal in  lines 41–45:  fear of the wooded surroundings is one of the main motivators in establishing paths in premodern societies. Look for an answer choice that introduces new evidence in support of this proposal or that rules out an alternate explanation. Be wary of answer choices that weaken the proposal or that are outside the scope of the proposal.

A. No.  This answer choice does not relate to fear.

B. No.  This answer choice does not relate to fear.

C. No.  This answer choice does not relate to fear.

D. No.  This answer choice does not relate to premodern societies.

E.  Yes.   Performing rituals for the purpose of protection suggests that there is something to fear and protect oneself from.

Answer: E

nikitathegreat · Answer

GMATNinja  - Can you please explain Q5 in detail. Why isn't the A the answer? Not able to understand whether he was setting the groundwork for his hypothesis for the social use of clearings or whether he mentioned to create doubt on the economic use of clearing just like he uses above paras to qualify the claim - clearings used for economic use.

chetan2u · Answer

5. In the thlrd paragraph, the author mentions Yi-Fu Tuan's argument primarily in order to

To tackle the question, let us read the para that talks of Yi-Fu Tuan

If one observes the lay of the para, the Geographer is not connected to any hypothesis on clearings. There is hypothesis on resource-procurement model being the reasoning behind the clearings. Then certain argument on fear of the wilderness is put forward. This argument is then used by author to put across his hypothesis on the clearings.

So, the argument of the geographer is used to promote the view of author on clearings.
The above is given by option D

(D) lay the groundwork for the hypothesis about clearings that the author outlines

GMATNinja · Answer

The hypothesis about the clearings is that they were used for resource procurement (i.e. to attract, hunt, and catch animals).

If that's your hypothesis and someone says to you, "yeah, but human behavior has always been driven by fear of the wilderness," does that, on its own, really hurt your hypothesis? It might  open the door  to some objections to your hypothesis, but Tuan's argument, by itself, certainly does not render your hypothesis doubtful.

Instead, the author takes Tuan's idea one step further: IF human behavior is driven by fear of the wilderness THEN perhaps "one of the primary motivators in establishing paths may have been fear of the wooded surroundings". Tuan's idea lays the groundwork for the author's new hypothesis, so (D) is a much better fit.

I hope that helps!

nikitathegreat · Answer

Can someone post solution for Q8.

I am confused between option choice C and E.

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 8 
 
The key the last sentence in the paragraph:

So some of this evidence supports the resource-procurement model, while other evidence seems to support an alternative model. Put another way, some evidence supports X while other evidence supports Y.

We get a similar notion in (E). The circumstantial evidence suggests the defendant is guilty. But other evidence suggests he's innocent.

The issue with (C) is that it's alleging a lack of evidence, not that some evidence supports X while other evidence supports Y, so (E) is better.

I hope that clears things up!

nikkimah · Answer

And finalty, it may lead us to
(55) explain some clearings as purely social phenomena,
since where paths meet, wider clearings emerge as
corners are cut and intersections become convenient
spots for resting.

Can someone explain this last line and Q7 in relation to this? How are we saying social phenomenon as a by products of non -economic practices?

7. Which one of the following comes closest to capturing what the phrase "purely social phenomena" means in line 55?

(A) phenomena that arise as by-products of a society's noneconomic practices
 GMATNinja  - Please explain why is this the correct one?
(B) phenomena that are universal and unique to human societies
(C) phenomena that serve the purpose of strengthening ties between a society's members
(D) phenomena that are intentionally created by human actions to produce a social benefit
 GMATNinja  - the last line says that woodland clearings is used for resting place. SO, cant we infer this option choice as the correct one?
(E) phenomena that reveal information about a society's cultural and economic development

Thanks

nikkimah · Answer

Can you help me understand how did you infer this meaning - the circumstantial evidence suggests the defendant is guilty from the first sentence? It looked to me like it is circumstantial and depends on case to case basis.

Thanks

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 7 
 
The author makes a distinction between economic use (e.g. resource/food procurement) and noneconomic practices (e.g. creating woodland paths to avoid getting lost in the wilderness or being harmed by wildlife/spirits).

According to the author, the clearings were a by-product of those paths -- where those paths met, wider clearings emerged. They didn't create the paths with the INTENTION of producing a social benefit. Instead, the social benefit was just a by-product of the woodland paths being created out of a fear of the wilderness -- a non-economic motivation.

I hope that helps!

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 8

Circumstantial evidence is simply indirect evidence. That just means that it can only be used to INFER the facts, as opposed to directly showing or proving those facts. It is not evidence that changes on a case-to-case basis.

"The prosecution's case against the defendant rests almost entirely on circumstantial evidence." In this phrase, the prosecution is, by definition, trying to show that the defendant is guilty. If the prosecution's case rests almost entirely on circumstantial evidence, then that's the same as saying that the circumstantial evidence (i.e. the circumstantial evidence used by the prosecution) supports that the defendant is guilty.

lewdtoucan · Answer

Hello, could you someone please help me with Q8?

I selected option B because it matches the way the evidence is interpreted in two ways. However, I see that E has the same structure but with "circumstantial" added to the evidence. How can I eliminate B in favor of E?

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 8 
 
(B) is out because the passage is not talking about two different interpretations of the   same   evidence. Instead, it talks about different interpretations based on different sources of evidence:

For a bit more on that, check out  this post  and, if needed,  this follow-up .

It is generally accepted that woodland clearings were utilized by

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It is generally accepted that woodland clearings were utilized by

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