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555-605 Level|   Humanities|   Short Passage|                           
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AndrewN
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 24 Sep 2021, 13:57
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zoezhuyan
Dear GMATNinja, GMATNinjaTwo, AndrewN,

I have a question regarding to Q4

I have no idea what's my problem when did this question because I cost a lot of time, so I tell you how I did, would you experts help point out my reasoning bugs? how to improve my inefficient approach?

first for reading the passage.
I read the first sentence of the passage, I figured out LK tells us the reason leading to an increase in educational opportunities for women, then later, LK illustrates why.

next for question
when I read this question stem, the word "lead" reminds me that I need find a reason, so i formulated the reason is an ideology of “republican motherhood”. but none options mentions republican motherhood.

so I reread paragraph 1, until the end of paragraph 1. then I picked up D.
although I got this, but it actually cost me a lot, almost time for 2 questions because my reading habit and ineffective approach.

I wonder my time cost because I confused argue with maintain ?

would you guys help clarify how to improve ?

genuinely need your help.

thanks in advance.
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Hello, zoezhuyan. One way in which you can shave time off your current approach to questions is to stop looking to justify each answer. When I look at the options, I see them in a different way.

Quote:
4) According to the passage, Kerber maintained that which of the following led to an increase in educational opportunities for women in the United States after the American Revolution?

(A) An unprecedented demand by women for greater educational opportunities in the decades following the Revolution
(B) A new political ideology calling for equality of opportunity between women and men in all aspects of life
(C) A belief that the American educational system could be reformed only if women participated more fully in that system
(D) A belief that women needed to be educated if they were to contribute to the success of the nation’s new form of government
(E) A recognition that women needed to be educated if they were to take an active role in the nation’s schools and churches
Show more
In (A), we are to understand that women themselves were spearheading this campaign to be educated, yet it is the leaders of the new nation who seem to have been interested in changing things. This is a classic sleight of hand on the part of the question-writers. Just because an issue concerned women does not mean that women themselves demanded change.

Quote:
Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980’s that after the American Revolution (1775-1783), an ideology of “republican motherhood” resulted in a surge of educational opportunities for women in the United States. Kerber maintained that the leaders of the new nation wanted women to be educated in order to raise politically virtuous sons. A virtuous citizenry was considered essential to the success of the country’s republican form of government; virtue was to be instilled not only by churches and schools, but by families, where the mother’s role was crucial. Thus, according to Kerber, motherhood became pivotal to the fate of the republic, providing justification for an unprecedented attention to female education.
Show more
In (B), all aspects of life is a clear overstatement of the information in the passage. In fact, we are never told that Kerber even mentioned equality between men and women. Women were simply granted educational opportunities that they did not enjoy before. (Does that mean every opportunity that men also had? Not if you know how educational opportunity played out in the U.S.)

(C) looks decent if you are going too fast, but only if is another extreme, and the focus of the answer is off. The passage does not discuss the leaders of the nation sitting down to decide what to do with the educational system—i.e. how to reform it. Rather, their goal was to produce a virtuous citizenry, and educational opportunities for women played into that aim. Stick with the basics.

(E) distracts from the motherhood notion altogether and places women in the workforce, more or less. It should be easy to eliminate.

If you arrived at (D), then so much the better. I would not necessarily worry that I had taken double the time for any given question. See how your timing goes across the entire passage or set of questions. Then, you can assess whether you need to work on your efficiency. In any case, looking for flaws should prove easier than sniffing out the one true answer—there are four incorrect answers to each question, after all.

I hope that helps allay your concerns. Thank you for thinking to ask.

- Andrew
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Hello, Can anyone explain me Q 2?
I chose option D but I saw one reply here saying that option D says 'functions' whereas in question it only says about one function of imbibing virtue. Is there any other clue to eliminate D?

Now coming to major point, Option C is correct but I eliminated it because it says that families are "primary" sources. Like where in passage does it say that families are "primariy"? In passage it only states that "virtue has to be instilled not only by schools and churches, but by families", this sentence doesn't mean that families have to take precedence over schools and churches right? Like families also should do it but by words " not only... but" kinda makes families as an afterthought in sequence of precedence. Or am I misinterpreting? Can anyone please help me locate or correct my interpretation on option C wrt passage?
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 25 Sep 2021, 13:08
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JaxHammer
Hello, Can anyone explain me Q 2?
I chose option D but I saw one reply here saying that option D says 'functions' whereas in question it only says about one function of imbibing virtue. Is there any other clue to eliminate D?

Now coming to major point, Option C is correct but I eliminated it because it says that families are "primary" sources. Like where in passage does it say that families are "primariy"? In passage it only states that "virtue has to be instilled not only by schools and churches, but by families", this sentence doesn't mean that families have to take precedence over schools and churches right? Like families also should do it but by words " not only... but" kinda makes families as an afterthought in sequence of precedence. Or am I misinterpreting? Can anyone please help me locate or correct my interpretation on option C wrt passage?
Show more
Hello, Jax. I think you are taking the line in question out of context. How about we look at the first paragraph again?

Quote:
Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980’s that after the American Revolution (1775-1783), an ideology of “republican motherhood” resulted in a surge of educational opportunities for women in the United States. Kerber maintained that the leaders of the new nation wanted women to be educated in order to raise politically virtuous sons. A virtuous citizenry was considered essential to the success of the country’s republican form of government; virtue was to be instilled not only by churches and schools, but by families, where the mother’s role was crucial. Thus, according to Kerber, motherhood became pivotal to the fate of the republic, providing justification for an unprecedented attention to female education.
Show more
Now, have a look at the question and answer choices again:

Quote:
2) According to the passage, Kerber argued that political leaders thought that the form of government adopted by the United States after the American Revolution depended on which of the following for its success?

(A) Women assuming the sole responsibility for instilling political virtue in children
(B) Girls becoming the primary focus of a reformed educational system that emphasized political virtue
(C) The family serving as one of the primary means by which children were imbued with political virtue
(D) The family assuming many of the functions previously performed by schools and churches
(E) Men and women assuming equal responsibility for the management of schools, churches, and the family
Show more
Answer choices (A) and (B) do, in fact, incorporate overreaching language. Nowhere does the passage say that women were to assume the sole responsibility of raising politically virtuous children, and neither does it say that girls were to become the primary focus of educational reform. Choice (C) is different, though: one of the primary means puts a few factors on level footing, in this case churches, schools, and families, where the mother’s role was crucial. Hence, choice (C) is perfectly justifiable and not extreme.

Meanwhile, answer choice (D) incorrectly states that women took over duties (of instilling political virtue in children) from the schools and churches, and that would fly in the face of what we just said above regarding level footing.

Finally, answer choice (E) projects this notion of equality between men and women onto the passage, where it is not to be found. I discussed that problem in my earlier post above.

In short, according to Kerber, women of the post-Revolutionary period were seen by the leaders of the new nation as homemakers who, along with schools and churches, could help to raise politically virtuous sons—i.e. citizens. Stick to what the passage says, and you should do fine.

I hope my response proves helpful to you. Good luck with your studies.

- Andrew
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 07 Oct 2021, 10:53
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JaxHammer
Hello, Can anyone explain me Q 2?
I chose option D but I saw one reply here saying that option D says 'functions' whereas in question it only says about one function of imbibing virtue. Is there any other clue to eliminate D?

Now coming to major point, Option C is correct but I eliminated it because it says that families are "primary" sources. Like where in passage does it say that families are "primariy"? In passage it only states that "virtue has to be instilled not only by schools and churches, but by families", this sentence doesn't mean that families have to take precedence over schools and churches right? Like families also should do it but by words " not only... but" kinda makes families as an afterthought in sequence of precedence. Or am I misinterpreting? Can anyone please help me locate or correct my interpretation on option C wrt passage?
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@AndrewN's answer is spot-on, but here's our two cents in case it's helpful!

As you say, one reason (D) is wrong is that we are arguably talking about just one function (i.e. instilling virtue) not multiple functions. But there's another problem with (D).

Notice the passage tells us that "virtue was to be instilled not only by churches and schools, but by families." However, it doesn't suggest that churches and schools "previously performed" this function. Based on the exact words of the passage, the only thing we can conclude is that schools, churches, and families will all serve this function at the same time.

Regarding your second question -- you're correct to say that the passage doesn't suggest that families will take precedence over schools and churches. But answer choice (C) doesn't say that families will take precedence, or even that they are the primary source of instilling virtue. It just says that the family will serve as "one of the primary means" by which children were imbued with virtue. Based on the passage, we know that churches, schools and families will all be important (i.e. primary), but we don't know if one is more important than the others.

Since (C) captures this meaning, it's the best answer.

I hope that helps!
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3) The passage suggests that, with regard to the history of women’s education in the United States, Kerber’s work differs from Woody’s primarily concerning which of the following?

(A) The extent to which women were interested in pursuing educational opportunities in the eighteenth century
(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for girls prior to the American Revolution
(C) The extent of public resistance to educational opportunities for women after the American Revolution
(D) Whether attitudes toward women’s educational opportunities changed during the eighteenth century
(E) Whether women needed to be educated in order to contribute to the success of a republican form of government


Hi AjiteshArun, GMATNinja, VeritasKarishma

I have a doubt in option choice B, wouldn't the word "women" be more appropriate than the word "girls" ?

(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for "women" prior to the American Revolution
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3) The passage suggests that, with regard to the history of women’s education in the United States, Kerber’s work differs from Woody’s primarily concerning which of the following?

(A) The extent to which women were interested in pursuing educational opportunities in the eighteenth century
(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for girls prior to the American Revolution
(C) The extent of public resistance to educational opportunities for women after the American Revolution
(D) Whether attitudes toward women’s educational opportunities changed during the eighteenth century
(E) Whether women needed to be educated in order to contribute to the success of a republican form of government


Hi AjiteshArun, GMATNinja, VeritasKarishma

I have a doubt in option choice B, wouldn't the word "women" be more appropriate than the word "girls" ?

(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for "women" prior to the American Revolution
Show more


Thomas Woody’s 1929 work is the notable exception. Examining newspaper advertisements for academies, Woody found that educational opportunities increased for both girls and boys around 1750.

The passage talks about educational opportunities for girls and boys (i.e. for young people). Woody believed that there were advocates of education for females even before the revolution.
Hence, the use of 'girls' is not a problem. Even if the passage did not mention 'girls' per say, use of girls or females in place of women would be acceptable. One needn't make a distinction based on it.
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Woody’s evidence challenges the notion that the Revolution changed attitudes regarding female education, although it may have accelerated earlier trends.
what the earlier accelerated trends refers to
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 07 Feb 2022, 09:06
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AndrewN
Woody’s evidence challenges the notion that the Revolution changed attitudes regarding female education, although it may have accelerated earlier trends.
what the earlier accelerated trends refers to
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A rare question about the passage itself, saby1410, but a type that I think deserves more attention. (When people focus on a particular missed question, the root cause is often a misunderstanding or lack of comprehension of the source material.) Although I believe the sentence itself provides sufficient contextual information for a reader to make an informed guess—trends occur around some cause, and the only cause mentioned is attitudes regarding female education—we can look to other parts of the paragraph to be sure.

Quote:
Introduction of the republican motherhood thesis dramatically changed historiography. Prior to Kerber’s work, educational historians barely mentioned women and girls; Thomas Woody’s 1929 work is the notable exception. Examining newspaper advertisements for academies, Woody found that educational opportunities increased for both girls and boys around 1750. Pointing to “An Essay on Woman” (1753) as reflecting a shift in view, Woody also claimed that practical education for females had many advocates before the Revolution. Woody’s evidence challenges the notion that the Revolution changed attitudes regarding female education, although it may have accelerated earlier trends. Historians’ reliance on Kerber’s “republican motherhood” thesis may have obscured the presence of these trends, making it difficult to determine to what extent the Revolution really changed women’s lives.
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The paragraph presents a consistent picture that the trends in question refer to a shift in attitudes regarding practical education for females. The passage on the whole pits the "republican motherhood" hypothesis of the first paragraph, which sees the American Revolution as the turning point in attitudes toward educational opportunities for women, against the hypothesis of Thomas Woody, which draws on evidence of a shift in view that predates the Revolution by about two decades.

Perhaps that makes more sense now. Thank you for thinking to ask.

- Andrew
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Got all questions correct, except #3. I was deciding between B or D.

"3) The passage suggests that, with regard to the history of women’s education in the United States, Kerber’s work differs from Woody’s primarily concerning which of the following?

(A) The extent to which women were interested in pursuing educational opportunities in the eighteenth century
(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for girls prior to the American Revolution
(C) The extent of public resistance to educational opportunities for women after the American Revolution
(D) Whether attitudes toward women’s educational opportunities changed during the eighteenth century
(E) Whether women needed to be educated in order to contribute to the success of a republican form of government"

— The answer is NOT D because…

(D) Whether attitudes toward women’s educational opportunities changed during the eighteenth century

“Woody’s evidence challenges the notion that the Revolution changed attitudes regarding female education, although it may have accelerated earlier trends.”

Changed attitudes toward female education ≠ female educational opportunities

— The answer is B because…

(B) The extent of the support for educational opportunities for girls prior to the American Revolution

L.K. = surge of educational opportunities from after Revolution (1775-1783)
Woody = surge of education opportunities before revolution (“around 1750”)

Hence, B is correct.

Hope this helps!
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Hello,
what exactly is Linda kerber is arguing here?
after american revolution, an ideology of "american motherhood" resulted surge of educational opportunities for women.
So, she agree with this or not?
I don't understand, what is she arguing?
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 13 May 2022, 07:50
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Hello,
what exactly is Linda kerber is arguing here?
after american revolution, an ideology of "american motherhood" resulted surge of educational opportunities for women.
So, she agree with this or not?
I don't understand, what is she arguing?
Show more
You're focusing on the right sentence. Right at the start of the passage, the author tells us that "Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980’s that after the American Revolution (1775-1783), an ideology of “republican motherhood” resulted in a surge of educational opportunities for women in the United States."

So, Kerber definitely agrees with the info in this sentence. She argues that things changed for women in the US after the American Revolution.

This argument contrasts with Woody's view, which is discussed in the second paragraph. Woody thinks that things didn't really change for women in the US after the Revolution. Instead, he thinks that the trend of increased education for women was already present before the Revolution.

I hope that helps!
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Hello,
what exactly is Linda kerber is arguing here?
after american revolution, an ideology of "american motherhood" resulted surge of educational opportunities for women.
So, she agree with this or not?
I don't understand, what is she arguing?
You're focusing on the right sentence. Right at the start of the passage, the author tells us that "Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980’s that after the American Revolution (1775-1783), an ideology of “republican motherhood” resulted in a surge of educational opportunities for women in the United States."

So, Kerber definitely agrees with the info in this sentence. She argues that things changed for women in the US after the American Revolution.

This argument contrasts with Woody's view, which is discussed in the second paragraph. Woody thinks that things didn't really change for women in the US after the Revolution. Instead, he thinks that the trend of increased education for women was already present before the Revolution.

I hope that helps!
Show more

Thank you GMATNinja for your response,
but I think my issue is pretty basic.

so when author says Kerber argues that things changed for US women after the American revolution.
according to you- she agrees that things really change for american women (woody disagrees and argument meakes complete sense now) but,
what type of construction is this? Argue means to express opposite views , hence when I read the sentence,
she has opposite views with changing of things for American women. I thought she disagrees.


Can you please help to fill these knowledge gap?
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dcoolguy
Hello,
what exactly is Linda kerber is arguing here?
after american revolution, an ideology of "american motherhood" resulted surge of educational opportunities for women.
So, she agree with this or not?
I don't understand, what is she arguing?
You're focusing on the right sentence. Right at the start of the passage, the author tells us that "Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980’s that after the American Revolution (1775-1783), an ideology of “republican motherhood” resulted in a surge of educational opportunities for women in the United States."

So, Kerber definitely agrees with the info in this sentence. She argues that things changed for women in the US after the American Revolution.

This argument contrasts with Woody's view, which is discussed in the second paragraph. Woody thinks that things didn't really change for women in the US after the Revolution. Instead, he thinks that the trend of increased education for women was already present before the Revolution.

I hope that helps!

Thank you GMATNinja for your response,
but I think my issue is pretty basic.

so when author says Kerber argues that things changed for US women after the American revolution.
according to you- she agrees that things really change for american women (woody disagrees and argument meakes complete sense now) but,
what type of construction is this? Argue means to express opposite views , hence when I read the sentence,
she has opposite views with changing of things for American women. I thought she disagrees.


Can you please help to fill these knowledge gap?
Show more
"Argue" has two different definitions.

Here, "argue" means "to give reasons or cite evidence in support of an idea, action, or theory, typically with the aim of persuading others to share one's view." You can tell that this is the definition in use because of the logic of the passage -- the author lays out Kerber's reasons for believing what she believes.

The second definition -- which is the one you're thinking of -- is "to exchange or express diverging or opposite views, typically in a heated or angry way." As an example of this second definition, you could say "They argued about whether gruyere was really the best cheese." This is not how "argue" is used in the passage.

I hope that helps!
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Can you please Q5 , I marked B as OA as there was increase in the opportunity so most probably teachers were persuaded by the essay
vp680
for qustion 5 why not option c?
proabhinav
Regarding Q5;

Please can you help the key differentiators between A & C that would have helped me/all choose A over C.

I chose C because passage sentence referenced that practical education for women had many " advocates before the revolution" , while as C though quite close to the context of what' being conveyed i.e. ideas for women' eduction and realisation after the revolution, somehow I found that right answer should speak about the ideas and support the cause had and how it was realised later.

Please do advice, if you believe rational shared by me needs correction. Thank You :)
Looks like question #5 is causing lots of pain. Here it is again:
Quote:
5) The passage suggests that Woody would have agreed with which of the following claims regarding “An Essay on Woman”?
Remember that in this passage, the author is analyzing the views of two different writers. In paragraph 1, the author tells us about Kerber's work in order to explain the "republican motherhood" thesis. In paragraph 2, the author tells us about Woody's work in order to question historians' reliance on that thesis.

This question is asking us which of the following five claims Woody (not Kerber, not the author) would have agreed with, regarding "An Essay on Woman" (not the thesis of republican motherhood in general). We'll eliminate any choice that doesn't specifically line up with Woody's view regarding this specific essay.

And what was Woody's view?

    "Examining newspaper advertisements for academies, Woody found that educational opportunities increased for both girls and boys around 1750. Pointing to “An Essay on Woman” (1753) as reflecting a shift in view, Woody also claimed that practical education for females had many advocates before the Revolution."

OK, Woody! Time for POE.

Quote:
(A) It expressed attitudes concerning women's education that were reflected in new educational opportunities for women after 1750.
(A) seems to match Woody's view in a very straightforward way. After all, Woody found that educational opportunities did increase for both genders around 1750. Woody also pointed to the essay (which was published in 1753) as reflecting a shift in view (i.e, a change in attitude) with regards to practical education for females. We'll keep this around until we find a better choice or eliminate everything else.

Quote:
(B) It persuaded educators to offer greater educational opportunities to women in the 1750s.
There's nothing to support the claim that Woody saw the essay this way. When describing Woody's claims, the author doesn't suggest any persuasive impact of the essay on educators and what those educators offered during the 1750s. Sure, Woody points to many advocates for practical education, but this is quite different from describing literal educators. Eliminate (B).

Quote:
(C) It articulated ideas about women's education that would not be realized until after the American Revolution.
(C) sounds good, but what exactly is it saying?

  • The essay articulated ideas about women's education. Fair enough.
  • These ideas would not be realized until after the American Revolution. Wait, what?

This totally clashes with what Woody claimed: That educational opportunities began increasing around 1750, that this shift in view was reflected by the essay in 1753, and that practical education had many advocates before the Revolution. Choice (C) paints a different picture, where no concrete change took place until at least 1783. That might have been in line with Kerber's thesis, but it's not what Woody believed.

That's why we eliminate (C).

Quote:
(D) It offered one of the most original arguments in favor of women's education in the United States in the eighteenth century.
Nope. Nothing in the passage tells us that Woody viewed the essay as "one of the most original arguments in favor of women's education." Eliminate (D).

Quote:
(E) It presented views about women's education that were still controversial in Woody's own time.
This very well could be true, but there's absolutely nothing in the passage that gives us a clue to how controversial Woody's ideas were. We only know that Woody's ideas were a notable exception among educational historians. Eliminate (E).

(A) is a boring choice, but it's the best one available. Every other choice either contradicts the passage, focuses on the wrong point of view, or makes a statement that drifts so far form the passage that it can't be supported.

I hope this helps!
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GMATNinja

To clarify, the "new educational opportunities" are the ones in which "the new nation wanted women to be educated in order to raise politically virtuous sons" correct? I was just a bit confused on what the passage meant by "new educational opportunities" in particular. Thank you for all of your help.
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 18 Jun 2022, 00:01
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how to find the official explanations of all the answers?
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 18 Jun 2022, 00:17
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ishan028
how to find the official explanations of all the answers?
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This question has three pages of discussion, you just need to scroll down and read the replies I hope you will find the explanation of all the questions.

Good Luck!
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 22 Jun 2022, 13:26
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GMATNinja

To clarify, the "new educational opportunities" are the ones in which "the new nation wanted women to be educated in order to raise politically virtuous sons" correct? I was just a bit confused on what the passage meant by "new educational opportunities" in particular. Thank you for all of your help.
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This passage starts out by giving us Linda Kerber's argument. More specifically, Kerber argues that "new educational opportunities for women" surged because of an "ideology of 'republican motherhood.'" In other words, this new ideology led to a surge in educational opportunities for women.

The next sentence explains what Kerber means by an "ideology of 'republican motherhood.'" Namely, "republican motherhood" is the belief that educating women will allow them to raise politically virtuous sons.

Notice the passage never actually gives us an example of these "new educational opportunities." So I wouldn't say the sentence about "politically virtuous sons" is an educational opportunity itself, but rather an explanation for why these educational opportunities arose. Instead of describing these educational opportunities or giving examples of them, the passage then focuses on the idea of "republican motherhood," and the way different historians have viewed the history of women's education.

I hope that helps!
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 13 Aug 2022, 03:49
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For Q5, I understood why wrong options are wrong, but in the first scan I had already eliminated option 'A' for the reason that it refers to "after 1750", whereas the referred line in the passage refers to "about 1750'.

I understand that A probably is best among others, but when an option is already eliminated for a reason, how do we come back to it? Any suggestion?
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 30 Oct 2022, 05:36
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GMATNinja GMATNinjaTwo

As per your post, you have mentioned that D is not the answer because it refers tp the 18th century and not the revolution, but the American Revolution lasted until before the end of the 18th century, 1775-1783.
If the American Revolution, lasted until 1799, then AFTER the American revolution would be the 19th century and BEFORE the American Revolution would be 18th century. I am not quite satisfied with your line of reasoning, though, I really appreciate your efforts and the time your team takes.

Moreover, only if attitudes were different, support for opportunities could differ, right?

So, D should be the answer.
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Linda Kerber argued in the mid-1980s that after the American 09 Nov 2022, 09:18
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Question 3


f20150353
GMATNinja GMATNinjaTwo

As per your post, you have mentioned that D is not the answer because it refers tp the 18th century and not the revolution, but the American Revolution lasted until before the end of the 18th century, 1775-1783.
If the American Revolution, lasted until 1799, then AFTER the American revolution would be the 19th century and BEFORE the American Revolution would be 18th century. I am not quite satisfied with your line of reasoning, though, I really appreciate your efforts and the time your team takes.

Moreover, only if attitudes were different, support for opportunities could differ, right?

So, D should be the answer.
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Question 3 asks us how Kerber's views and Woody's views differ. From the passage, we know that Kerber thought that the 18th century American Revolution changed attitudes about women's education. Woody, on the other hand, thought that these attitudes actually changed earlier in the 18th century, before the American Revolution.

Here's (D):
Quote:
(D) [Kerber’s work differs from Woody’s primarily concerning] whether attitudes toward women’s educational opportunities changed during the eighteenth century
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BOTH Kerber and Woody thought that attitudes changed in the 18th century -- they just disagree about the exact timeframe within that century. Woody thought that they had changed by 1753, while Kerber thought that they changed as a result of the Revolution (1775-1783).

Because both Kerber and Woody agree that attitudes changed in the 18th century, (D) doesn't point out a difference in their ideas.

Eliminate (D) for question 3.

I hope that helps!
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