The final quarter of the nineteenth century marked a turning point in

Question

The final quarter of the nineteenth century marked a  turning point  in the history of biology—biologists became less interested in applying an ideal of historical explanation deductively to organic function and more interested in discerning the causes of vital processes through experimental manipulation. But it is impossible to discuss the history of biology in the nineteenth century without emphasizing that those areas of biology most in the public eye had depended on historical explanation. Wherever it was applied, historical explanation was deemed causal explanation. The biologist-as-historian and the general historian of human events dealt with comparable phenomena and assumed necessarily a common mode of explanation.

Nineteenth-century biologists found a historical explanation of organic function attractive partly because their observation of the formation of a new cell from a preexisting cell seemed to confirm a historical explanation of cell generation. The same direct observation of continuous stages of development was also possible when they examined the complex sequence of events of embryogenesis. In both cases, the observer received a concrete impression that the daughter cell was brought into being, or caused, by the prior cell. The argument that these scientists employed confuses temporal succession and causal explanation, of course, but such confusion is the heart of most historical explanation.

Not surprisingly, the evolutionary biologists of the nineteenth century encountered a particularly troublesome problem in their attempts to document historical explanation convincingly: the factual record of the history of life on earth (e.g., that provided by fossils) was incomplete. The temporal continuity of living forms was convincing, but was an assumption that was difficult to uphold when one compared species or organisms forming any two stages of the evolutionary record. Nineteenth-century biologists recognized this problem and attempted to resolve it. Their solution today appears to be only verbal, but was then regarded as eminently causal. The fact of evolution demanded some connection between all reproducing individuals and the species that they compose, as well as between living species and their extinct ancestors. Their solution, the concept of heredity, seemed to fill in an admittedly deficient historical record and seemed to complete the argument for a historical explanation of evolutionary events.   RC49461.01-10
  1 
 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. compare the information about organic function made available by historical explanation with that made available by the experimental investigation of living organisms
B. assess the influence that theories of history had on developments in the field of biology in the nineteenth century
C. discuss the importance of historical explanation in the thinking of nineteenth century biologists
D. contrast biologists' use of historical explanation during the early nineteenth century with its use during the final quarter of the nineteenth century
E. evaluate the way in which the concept of heredity altered the use of historical explanation by nineteenth-century biologists

RC49461.01-20 
 2 
 2. According to information presented in the passage, which of the following is a true statement about the methods of explanation used by biologists and historians in the nineteenth century?

A. Neither biologists nor historians were able to develop methods of explanation that were accepted by the majority of their colleagues.
B. The methods used by biologists to explain phenomena changed dramatically, whereas the methods used by historians to explain events did not change as noticeably.
C. Biologists believed that they had refined the methods of explanation used by historians.
D. Biologists' and historians' methods of explaining what they believed to be comparable phenomena were similar.
E. Although biologists and historians adopted similar methods of explanation, the biologists were more apologetic about their use of these methods.

RC49461.01-30 
 3 
 3. Which of the following best summarizes the “turning point” mentioned in line 2?

A. The beginning of the conflict between proponents of the ideal of historical explanation and the proponents of experimentation
B. The substitution of historical explanation for causal explanation
C. The shift from interest in historical explanation to interest in experimentation
D. The attention suddenly paid to problems of organic function
E. The growth of public awareness of the controversies among biologists

RC49461.01-40 
 4 
 4. The author implies that nineteenth-century biologists who studied embryogenesis believed that they

A. had discovered physical evidence that supported their use of historical explanation
B. were the first biologists to call for systematic experimentation on living organisms
C. were able to use historical explanation more systematically than were biologists who did not study embryogenesis
D. had inadvertently discovered an important part of the factual record of the history of living organisms on earth
E. had avoided the logical fallacies that characterize the reasoning of most nineteenth-century biologists

RC49461.01-50 
 5 
 5. The passage would be most likely to appear in which of the following?

A. An essay investigating the methodology used by historians of human events
B. A book outlining the history of biology in the nineteenth century
C. A seminar paper on the development of embryogenesis as a field of study in nineteenth-century biology
D. A review of a book whose topic is the discovery of fossils in the nineteenth century
E. A lecture whose subject is the limitations of experimental investigation in modern biology

gmatt1476 · Accepted Answer

Official Explanation

RC49461.01-10

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. compare the information about organic function made available by historical explanation with that made available by the experimental investigation of living organisms
B. assess the influence that theories of history had on developments in the field of biology in the nineteenth century
C. discuss the importance of historical explanation in the thinking of nineteenth century biologists
D. contrast biologists' use of historical explanation during the early nineteenth century with its use during the final quarter of the nineteenth century
E. evaluate the way in which the concept of heredity altered the use of historical explanation by nineteenth-century biologists

Main idea

This question requires that we understand the fundamental purpose of the passage, which is a function of both its structure and content.

The first paragraph of the passage notes a turning point in the history of biology. In the late nineteenth century, biologists made a shift away from historical explanation of biology.

However, as the passage continues, it addresses the importance of historical explanation in biology throughout the nineteenth century.

A. The passage says little about the information about organic function that is made available by the experimental investigation of living organisms.

B. The passage focuses on historical explanation in biology. It does not discuss different theories of history. Therefore, it does not assess the influence of different theories of history on the influence on developments in biology.

C. Correct.  The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss the importance of historical explanation in nineteenth-century biology.

D. The passage mentions the final quarter of the nineteenth century specifically to note the turning point when biologists began to use experimental manipulation as a way to discern the causes of vital processes. The passage does not contrast these biologists' use of historical explanation during the final quarter of the nineteenth century with their use of it earlier in the nineteenth century.

E. The final sentence of the passage suggests that the concept of heredity seemed to complete the argument for a historical explanation of evolutionary events. However, this is just one part of the passage's discussion of historical explanation in biology in the nineteenth century.

The correct answer is C.

gmatt1476 · Answer

Official Explanation

RC49461.01-20

2. According to information presented in the passage, which of the following is a true statement about the methods of explanation used by biologists and historians in the nineteenth century?

A. Neither biologists nor historians were able to develop methods of explanation that were accepted by the majority of their colleagues.
B. The methods used by biologists to explain phenomena changed dramatically, whereas the methods used by historians to explain events did not change as noticeably.
C. Biologists believed that they had refined the methods of explanation used by historians.
D. Biologists' and historians' methods of explaining what they believed to be comparable phenomena were similar.
E. Although biologists and historians adopted similar methods of explanation, the biologists were more apologetic about their use of these methods.

Supporting idea

The passage states The biologist-as-historian and the general historian of human events dealt with comparable phenomena and assumed necessarily a common mode of explanation. This indicates, in other words, that biologists' and historians' methods were similar in explaining what they believed to be comparable phenomena.

A. The passage suggests that biologists through most of the nineteenth century tended to use historical explanation. Presumably, it is not true that biologists were unable to develop methods that were accepted by the majority of their colleagues.

B. The passage suggests that methods used by biologists changed significantly toward the end of the nineteenth century. However, nothing in the passage indicates to what extent, if at all, historians' methods changed.

C. The passage suggests that biologists believed that, in observing embryogenesis and cell formation, there existed a clear justification for the utility of historical explanation in biology. However, there is no indication that these biologists believed that they had refined the historical methods used by historians.

D. Correct.  The final sentence of the first paragraph indicates that the methods of biologists and historians in the nineteenth century were similar.

E. The only evidence that biologists were apologetic about their methods in the nineteenth century is that a turning point in their methods existed toward the end of the century. This is of course only weak evidence that biologists were apologetic. And even if these biologists were apologetic, nothing in the passage indicates whether historians were more or less apologetic.

The correct answer is D.

gmatt1476 · Answer

Official Explanation

RC49461.01-30

3. Which of the following best summarizes the “turning point” mentioned in line 2?

A. The beginning of the conflict between proponents of the ideal of historical explanation and the proponents of experimentation
B. The substitution of historical explanation for causal explanation
C. The shift from interest in historical explanation to interest in experimentation
D. The attention suddenly paid to problems of organic function
E. The growth of public awareness of the controversies among biologists

Evaluation

The turning point mentioned in the passage refers to a shift among biologists during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Specifically, this shift was from favoring historical explanation to a greater interest in experimentation.

A. The passage does not specify any sort of conflict between proponents of the ideal of historical explanation and the proponents of experimentation. The passage only notes that there was a shift in interest from historical explanation—applied deductively to organic function—to experimentation.

B. The passage indicates, with some criticism, that historical explanation was seen as a type of causal explanation.

C. Correct.  As noted above, the turning point was a shift away from historical explanation—the dominant thread in biology throughout most of the nineteenth century—toward experimentation.

D. The passage suggests that, throughout the nineteenth century, biology had been concerned with organic function: initially it explained organic function through historical processes and then it began to explain organic function through experimentation.

E. The passage does not indicate whether public awareness of controversies among biologists grew.

The correct answer is C.

gmatt1476 · Answer

Official Explanation

RC49461.01-40

4. The author implies that nineteenth-century biologists who studied embryogenesis believed that they

A. had discovered physical evidence that supported their use of historical explanation
B. were the first biologists to call for systematic experimentation on living organisms
C. were able to use historical explanation more systematically than were biologists who did not study embryogenesis
D. had inadvertently discovered an important part of the factual record of the history of living organisms on earth
E. had avoided the logical fallacies that characterize the reasoning of most nineteenth-century biologists

Implication

The author indicates that nineteenth-century biologists used a historical explanation of organic function. This use, they believed, was justified through observations of cell generation and stages in embryogenesis.

A. Correct.  The author suggests that nineteenth-century biologists who studied embryogenesis believed that they had discovered physical evidence supporting the use of historical explanation.

B. The passage does not imply that biologists who studied embryogenesis were the first to call for systematic experimentation on living organisms.

C. The passage does not imply that biologists who studied embryogenesis were any more successful in using historical explanation systematically than biologists who did not.

D. The passage states that the fossil record was incomplete, so it is likely that this means many important things were missing. Any specific inadvertent discovery would have to be mentioned directly in the passage. The passage does not suggest any sort of discovery.

E. The author, in the second paragraph, indicates that both those nineteenth-century biologists who studied cell generation and those who studied embryology confused temporal succession and causal explanation.

The correct answer is A.

gmatt1476 · Answer

Official Explanation

RC49461.01-50

5. The passage would be most likely to appear in which of the following?

A. An essay investigating the methodology used by historians of human events
B. A book outlining the history of biology in the nineteenth century
C. A seminar paper on the development of embryogenesis as a field of study in nineteenth-century biology
D. A review of a book whose topic is the discovery of fossils in the nineteenth century
E. A lecture whose subject is the limitations of experimental investigation in modern biology

Evaluation

The passage discusses a turning point in the late nineteenth century in the history of biology. It then focuses primarily on the use of historical explanation in the field of biology during the nineteenth century. Therefore, it seems that, among the five options here, the one this passage would be most likely to appear in would be a book discussing the history of biology in the nineteenth century.

A. The passage focuses on nineteenth-century biologists' use of historical explanation. It presents no specific investigation of how historians used that methodology. Therefore, it would not be of particular value in an essay investigating the methodology used by historians of human events.

B. Correct.  The passage focuses mainly on nineteenth-century biologists' use of historical explanation. It also mentions a turning point in the history of biology. It references the history of human events primarily as an analogy to help clarify the biologists' use of this historical method. These facts about the passage suggest that, among the five options here, the one the passage would be most likely to appear in would be a book outlining the history of biology in the nineteenth century.

C. The passage spends only a portion of one paragraph saying anything about embryogenesis. Even that portion is primarily offered only to give some explanation of why nineteenth-century biologists were attracted to the use of historical explanation. It does not seem that it would appropriate to use the entire passage in a seminar paper on the topic of embryogenesis as a field of study in nineteenth-century biology.

D. There is no reference to a book whose topic is the discovery of fossils in the nineteenth century. The passage only briefly mentions fossils. It seems unlikely that the passage would be of any use to a review of such a book.

E. The passage says almost nothing about experimental investigation in modern biology, and says absolutely nothing about its limitations.

The correct answer is B.

NandishSS · Answer

HI gmatt1476 , MentorTutoring , GMATNinja , Official Explanation -- Is it a OG explanation? Ninja -- Is the passage tough or questions?

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  NandishSS , and thank you for tagging me. Yes, the passage and explanations  are  official--i.e. from GMAC™. The source of the questions is the relatively new  GMAT™ Official Advanced Questions  book that was released in 2019. These questions correspond to questions 173-177 from the book, and, according to  the GMAT Club Advanced GMAT Directory with Difficulty Analysis , this passage is rated   Very Hard  . That does not mean you need to approach the task any differently, but if you found this passage a little tricky, you are in good company.

- Andrew

mSKR · Answer

Hi  IanStewart   GMATNinja   CrackVerbalGMAT   GMATRockstar   BrightOutlookJenn

We should reject B only because it is mentioned theories of history? Actually I liked B because whatever was derived by 19th century biologists depends on historical explanation .So it means historical explanation had influence in development . But assess means estimate. 1st line of 2nd passage says: partly attracted , so I took it as kind of assess. Somehow i ignored "theories" and end up in choosing B.

I rejected C because biologists were adding experiments beyond what was given in historical explanation. But I am still confused whether I consider this consideration as importance? Infact as experiments add value to the historical explanation so it should be discussion the importance of experiments /methods of 19th century.

Please share your insights once again on primary purpose question:)

Thanks!

zoezhuyan · Answer

dear  AndrewN ,
would you please help Q5, I am not sure how to choose between A and B.

after reading this passage, I though the passage says some people wanted to switch from historical explanation to cause through experiment process, but later they found it is impossible to throw historical explanation away. although historical explanation is uncompleted, they found solutions.

I think investigation here means examination the use of historical explanation, and as a result, it is impossible to throw historical explanation out. that's what investigation points out.

but B also seems good.

I need your help.

thanks in advance

mSKR · Answer

By the time our dear sir reply. I would like to share my thoughts:
( i tried this paragraph after a month and was able to get all correct)

On my first reading , I rejected C , D and E. Finally I choose B.

Here is my explanation for A and B

5. The passage would be most likely to appear in which of the following?

A. An  essay   investigating  the  methodology  used by  historians  of human events
I picked some key words and verufy them with the information in the passage. Immediately I knew it was not right answer.
investigating? -Can u find investigating ?--> 19th century biologists looked to new methods of experimentation
historians? -->Are you sure? I think 19th century biologists make more sense, is not it? 
I straightforward rejected it after above concluding points. 
 
B. A book outlining the history of biology in the nineteenth century
Now I need to make sure, b is answer
book--> ok , doesnt matter
outlining: can be said
history of biology--> cells , embryogenesis--all come under biology- no rejection
19th century--> yes it happened in 19th century

so i was not resisted on any word here. 
hence sure shot B

I hope it helps.

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  zoezhuyan . I agree with the post above by  mSKR . When it comes to any Verbal task, you want to stop searching for correct answers and start looking for those that are easier to argue against. Use that process of elimination against each question. Keep in mind that specificity often works against answer choices in broader RC questions (basically those that do not adopt an according-to-the-passage framework). When I look at the question at hand, it is broader in scope:

Since you asked about (A) and (B) in particular, how about we look at them?

Looking at (A),  investigating the methodology  is already suspect before we reach the latter part. I would expect such an investigation to provide a step-by-step account of what  biologists of the nineteenth century  had done to explore their scientific interests. The passage seems to want to explain its topic instead. See, for instance, the first line of the second paragraph:

We, the readers, are being  told  why the biologists  found a historical explanation of organic function attractive , and the sentences that follow provide detail to that end. We are not privy to seeing how the biologists set up and carried out their experiments, something that I feel would be more in keeping with (A).

The latter part of (A) is just as problematic. The mention of  historians of human events  does not encapsulate the content of the passage, but latches onto a sentence that is mentioned at the end of the first paragraph and, to be honest, is  too broad  in scope. That is, the passage is not concerned with  human events  in general, but from start to finish focuses on  historical explanation  in nineteenth-century biology (lines 4, 10, 11, 14-15, 19, 28-29, 33, and 49). So, we now have two reasons to doubt (A).

I really like the way  mSKR  parsed (B) to look for weaknesses but could not turn up any. The passage is indeed  outlining the history of biology in the nineteenth century . An  outline  does not have to an in-depth or exhaustive look at something, and the details on offer— history  +  biology  +  nineteenth century —all add up to form a composite that is difficult to argue against. For this reason and those above, (B) is a superior answer to (A).

I hope that helps with your queries.

- Andrew

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 1 
 
To answer primary purpose questions, first break down the structure of the passage as a whole:

In the first paragraph, the author:
  Introduces a turning point in the history of biology: from a "historical explanation" to "experimental manipulation." 
 Says that the "historical explanation" era is important to the discussion and gives some further info.

In the second paragraph, the author:
  Explains why biologists liked the historical explanation 
 Raises an issue with the historical explanation ("The argument that these scientists employed confuses temporal succession and causal explanation.")

In the third paragraph, the author:
  Raises a difficulty with the historical explanation ("the factual record of the history of life on earth (e.g., that provided by fossils) was incomplete." 
 Explains the solution to this difficulty.

Overall, the author's purpose is to discuss the history of biology, and particularly how the historical explanation is important to that discussion. Sure, he/she  mentions  experimental manipulation -- but only in passing.

Which answer choice best captures the author's primary purpose?
 
The author does not tell us about the information gleaned from experimental instigation. So, there isn't a clean comparison between the information made available by the two different methods.

(A) is out.

The author discusses the biologists' "historical  explanation " at length -- but that's not quite the same as  "theories of history" . "Theories of history" would be some kind of conceptual underpinning used by historians. The author doesn't go into anything like that, so (B) is out.

This one looks pretty good. The author states that "it is impossible to discuss the history of biology in the nineteenth century without emphasizing that those areas of biology most in the public eye had depended on historical explanation." Then, he/she spend the rest of the passage discussing the historical explanation.

Keep (C) for now.

Nope, biologists shifted  away  from the historical explanation during the final quarter of the nineteenth century -- so it's a bit off to say that the author contrasts how BOTH the earlier and the more recent biologists used the historical explanation.

Eliminate (D).

Heredity is mentioned near the end of the passage. However, it is only included as a small detail in a much broader discussion of biologists' historical explanation. So, the bit about heredity isn't the author's primary purpose for writing the passage as a whole.

Eliminate (E). (C) is the correct answer to question 1.

GMATNinja · Answer

Question 2

The passage primarily discusses  biologists  who use a historical explanation to explore evolutionary events.  Historians  themselves are only directly mentioned in one piece of the passage:

"The biologist-as-historian and the general historian of human events dealt with comparable phenomena and assumed necessarily a common mode of explanation."   
This sentence provides strong support for (D), the correct answer to Question 2:

Take another look at (C):
 
Here's the piece of the passage that you've quoted:

"The temporal continuity of living forms was convincing, but was an assumption that was difficult to uphold when one compared species or organisms forming any two stages of the evolutionary record. Nineteenth-century biologists recognized this problem and attempted to resolve it. Their solution today appears to be only verbal, but was then regarded as eminently causal."

This implies that biologists believed that they resolved an issue. But did they  refine the methods of explanation used by historians ?

Not really. The "problem" that biologists addressed was a specific issue with the historical explanation of evolution, NOT a problem with historical explanations in general. So, we can't conclude that biologists refined the methods used by historians. For that reason, (C) is incorrect.

jabhatta2 · Answer

avigutman  - Do you think that maybe my thinking is wrong because

-- technically reviews about the book should be the topic of the book, i.e. discovery of fossils. What biologists' subsequent views on the fossils discovered perhaps is the topic of a completely different book

-- Reviews of a book will be about "methods" of discovery by geologists / archeologists used. biologists' views on the

avigutman · Answer

Yeah  jabhatta2  note that the question stem had the words "most likely".
A book about the discovery of fossils could theoretically go into biologists' and historians' analysis of those fossils, but the likelihood that a whole passage detailing this:

biologists became less interested in applying an ideal of historical explanation deductively to organic function and more interested in discerning the causes of vital processes through experimental manipulation

would appear within the review of that book is extremely low.

Will2020 · Answer

Hi GMATNinja KarishmaB GMATRockstar ! In question 3, I got between C and D, but I couldn't choose between the two. Can you help? Tks!

KarishmaB · Answer

3. Which of the following best summarizes the “turning point” mentioned in line 2?

A. The beginning of the conflict between proponents of the ideal of historical explanation and the proponents of experimentation
B. The substitution of historical explanation for causal explanation
C. The shift from interest in historical explanation to interest in experimentation
D. The attention suddenly paid to problems of organic function
E. The growth of public awareness of the controversies among biologists

The final quarter of the nineteenth century marked
⠀⠀⠀ a turning point in the history of biology—biologists
⠀⠀⠀ became less interested in applying an ideal of
⠀⠀⠀ historical explanation deductively to organic function
(5)⠀⠀and more interested in discerning the causes of vital
⠀⠀⠀ processes through experimental manipulation.

What was the turning point? 
Before the turning point, biologists were interested in "applying an ideal of historical explanation deductively to organic function" 
After the turning point they became interested in "discerning the causes of vital processes through experimental manipulation" instead.

Note that "vital processes" is similar to "organic function". 
Before - they used to apply historical explanation to explain organic function. After - they started experimenting to explain the processes.

Hence (C) fits.

(D) is incorrect because before the turning point too they were interested in applying explanations to organic function so they were interested in organic function. They did not suddenly get interested in organic function after the turning point.

Answer (C)

ag153 · Answer

1. Why is the correct answer right
2. WHat does it mean "The biologist-as-historian and the general historian of
⠀⠀⠀ human events dealt with comparable phenomena and
⠀⠀⠀ assumed necessarily a common mode of explanation."?
3. What is "biologist as historian" and what is its significance?
4. DIdn't historians have a different method which aso included identifying causes so how are we saying they had the same?
5. How does it confuse and what does it mean " The argument
⠀⠀⠀ that these scientists employed confuses temporal
⠀⠀⠀ succession and causal explanation, of course,
⠀⠀⠀ but such confusion is the heart of most historical
⠀⠀⠀ explanation."

6. Also did not understand any word in theses sentences and what it means as a whole:" The temporal continuity of
⠀⠀⠀ living forms was convincing, but was an assumption
⠀⠀⠀ that was difficult to uphold when one compared
⠀⠀⠀ species or organisms forming any two stages of the
⠀⠀⠀ evolutionary record. Nineteenth-century biologists
 ⠀⠀recognized this problem and attempted to resolve
⠀⠀⠀ it. Their solution today appears to be only verbal,
⠀⠀⠀ but was then regarded as eminently causal."

7. Alsp pls clarify Q5- A

KarishmaB   AndrewN   MartyTargetTestPrep   Sajjad1994   GMATNinja   egmat

AndrewN · Answer

Hello,  ag153 . It is not entirely clear to me which question(s) you may be asking about, other than number 5, specifically answer choice (A). It just so happens that I discussed this question and answer choice in an earlier post. If you find something confusing or inadequate about that explanation, please let me know, and I will do my best to provide further clarity.

Also, I cannot speak for the other five people you mentioned, but these "list" mentions can be a little off-putting. Such a list may be construed as an attempt to get your questions answered quickly, never mind who responds (as long as somebody does). I understand if you like reading the responses that certain Experts provide: I do, too. But I, for one, am less inclined to prioritize a list mention than I am a single mention or one alongside one other Expert.

If you are having trouble with RC in general, you might not want to jump into  GMAT Advanced  questions. Work your way up to them instead. If you need help on your approach, try  GMAT Ninja's RC Guide for Beginners  or the pertinent sections of  All GMAT Ninja LIVE YouTube videos by topic .

- Andrew

The final quarter of the nineteenth century marked a turning point in

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The final quarter of the nineteenth century marked a turning point in

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