When scientists discuss the point in the evolutionary process at which a sense of fairness arose in human beings, one of two theories generally prevails. The first theory holds that a sense of fairness – or, more generally, morality – is a late and mostly intellectual addition to the evolutionary process. In this view morality is defined as a set of rules agreed upon by a society, permitting human beings to “rise above” the raw violence and competition found in “nature.” In certain circles this idea is known as “veneer theory,” because it posits human morality as a thin crust on a violently churning interior. The second theory, by contrast, does not set nature and morality in direct opposition, but rather holds a sense of fairness to be as much a part of human “nature” as violence and competition. Advocates of this theory most often appeal to the behavior of other primates to argue that humans possess an innate sense of fairness common to other species of a shared evolutionary past. Orangutans, for example, have been observed to throw temper tantrums when teased by being shown an apple they are not allowed to have. Experiments with monkeys offering them two kinds of rewards for performing simple tasks have shown that they will refuse the less-preferred reward if they see their companions receiving the preferred reward for performing the same task. Which of the following, if added to the end of the passage, would make the best conclusion to the discussion of the second theory? A. For advocates of this theory, the behavior of primates offers evidence that a sense of fairness evolved before primate species differentiated, making morality just as “natural” to humans as violence and competition. B. In conclusion, both orangutans and monkeys were observed to raise strenuous objections when they felt that a received standard of fairness had somehow been violated. C. In contrast to veneer theory, then, the second theory’s use of observation and experiment lends it a credibility that can not be denied. D. Because orangutans and monkeys, at least in these examples, demonstrated a clear sense of fairness, it can reasonably be concluded that morality comes more naturally to them than it does to humans. E. Despite the suggestion that primates such as monkeys and orangutans possess an innate sense of fairness, however, most scientists continue to accept veneer theory.

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V03-35, V03-36, V03-37, V03-38, V03-39

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gullyboy09

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14 Apr 2026, 03:28

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This is a great question that’s helpful for learning. But in VV03-38 option B, my issue is with the last part - "but can not be changed", I am not able to infer this definitive statement here. Although its best of all, because of this one part took a lot of time, and eventually I got this question wrong also.

bhanu29

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Can you please quote the question?

gullyboy09

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I did not quite understand the solution. In this view morality is defined as a set of rules agreed upon by a society, permitting human beings to “rise above” the raw violence and competition found in “nature.”

I think Option A can be inferred from the line above