Helplessness and passivity are central themes in describing human depr

Question

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Passage # 88, Date: 14-May-2020
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Helplessness and passivity are central themes in describing human depression. Laboratory experiments with animals have uncovered a phenomenon designated “learned helplessness.” Dogs given inescapable shock initially show intense emotionality, but later become passive in the same situation. When the situation is changed from inescapable to escapable shock, the dogs fail to escape even though escape is possible. Neurochemical changes resulting from learned helplessness produce an avoidance escape deficit in laboratory animals.

Is the avoidance deficit caused by prior exposure to inescapable shock learned helplessness or is it simply stress-induced noradrenergic deficiency leading to a deficit in motor activation? Avoidance Escape deficit can be produced in rats by stress alone, i.e., by a brief swim in cold water. But a deficit produced by exposure to extremely traumatic events must be produced by a very different mechanism than the deficit produced by exposure to the less traumatic uncontrollable aversive events in the learned helplessness experiments. A nonaversive parallel to the learned helplessness induced by uncontrollable shock, e.g., induced by uncontrollable food delivery, produces similar results. Moreover, studies have shown the importance of prior experience in learned helplessness. Dogs can be “immunized” against learned helplessness by prior experience with controllable shock. Rats also show a  “mastery effect”  after extended experience with escapable shock. They work far longer trying to escape from inescapable shock than do rats lacking this prior mastery experience. Conversely, weanling rats given inescapable shock fail to escape shock as adults. These adult rats are also poor to nonaversive discrimination learning.

Certain similarities have been noted between conditions produced in animals by the learned-helplessness procedure and by the experimental neurosis paradigm. In the latter, animals are first trained on a discrimination task and are then tested with discriminative stimuli of increasing similarity. Eventually, as the discrimination becomes very difficult, animals fail to respond and begin displaying abnormal behaviors: first agitation, then lethargy.

It has been suggested that both learned helplessness and experimental neurosis involve inhibition of motivation centers and pathways by limbic forebrain inhibitory centers, especially in the septal area. The main function of this inhibition is compensatory, providing relief from anxiety or distress. In rats subjected to the learned-helplessness and experimental-neurosis paradigms, stimulation of the septum produces behavioral arrest, lack of behavioral initiation and lethargy, while rats with septal lesions do not show learned helplessness.

How analogous the model of learned helplessness and the paradigm of stress induced neurosis are to human depression is not entirely clear. Inescapable noise or unsolvable problems have been shown to result in conditions in humans similar to those induced in laboratory animals, but an adequate model of human depression must also be able to account for the cognitive complexity of human depression.   1 
 B 
 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) propose a cure for depression in human beings
(B) discuss research possibly relevant to depression in human beings
(C) criticize the result of experiments which induce depression in laboratory animals
(D) raise some questions about the propriety of using laboratory animals for research
(E) suggest some ways in which depression in animals differs from depression in humans

2 
 D 
 2. The author raises the question at the beginning of the second paragraph in order to

(A) prove that learned helplessness is caused by neurochemical changes
(B) demonstrate that learned helplessness is also caused by nonaversive discrimination learning
(C) suggest that further research is needed to determine the exact causes of learned helplessness
(D) refute a possible objection based on an alternative explanation of the cause of learned helplessness
(E) express doubts about the structure of the experiments that created learned helplessness in dogs

3 
 B 
 3. It can be inferred from the passage that rats with septal lesions do not show learned helplessness because

(A) such rats were immunized against learned helplessness by prior training
(B) the lesions blocked communication between the limbic forebrain inhibitory centers and motivation centers
(C) the lesions prevented the rats from understanding the inescapability of the helplessness situation
(D) a lack of stimulation of the septal area does not necessarily result in excited behavior
(E) lethargy and other behavior associated with learned helplessness can be induced by the neurosis paradigm

4 
 A 
 4. It can be inferred that the most important difference between experiments inducing learned helplessness by inescapable shock and the nonaversive parallel mention edin is that the nonaversive parallel

(A) did not use pain as a stimuli to be avoided
(B) failed to induce learned helplessness in subject animals
(C) reduced the extent of learned helplessness
(D) caused a more traumatic reaction in the animals
(E) used only rats rather than dogs as subjects

5 
 A 
 5. The author cites the “mastery effect” primarily in order to

(A) prove the avoidance deficit caused by exposure to inescapable shock is not caused by shock per se but by the inescapability
(B) cast doubts on the validity of models of animal depression when applied to depression in human beings
(C) explain the neurochemical changes in the brain that cause learned helplessness
(D) suggest that the experimental neurosis paradigm and the learned helplessness procedure produce similar behavior in animals
(E) argue that learned helplessness is simply a stress-induced noradrenergic deficiency

6 
 E 
 6. Which of the following would be the most logical continuation of the passage?

(A) An explanation of the connection between the septum and the motivation centers of the brains of rats
(B) An examination of techniques used to cure animals of learned helplessness
(C) A review of experiments designed to create stress-induced noradrenergic deficiencies in humans
(D) A proposal for an experiment to produce learned helplessness and experimental neurosis in humans
(E) An elaboration of the differences between human depression and similar animal behavior

Source:   Master GMAT    (108) 
Difficulty Level:   700

rishit924 · Answer

Experts!! Could you please explain why the answer to Q4 is A and Why the answer to Q6 is E and not D. Thanks in advance.

Gowtham91 · Answer

Hi  rishit924

Q4. We can arrive at this option by PoE and further deduction from the passage.

B. failed to induce learned helplessness in subject animals

Para2 mentioned that "A nonaversive parallel to the learned helplessness induced by uncontrollable shock." This means a nonaversive parallel is another means to induce learned helplessness in the subject animals. Nowhere it is mentioned that it faled to induce learned helplessness. Hence this is wrong.

C. reduced the extent of learned helplessness

Although para2 mentions that "Dogs can be “immunized” against learned helplessness by prior experience with controllable shock.". It is not mentioned that a non aversive parallel reduced the extent of learned helplessness.

D. caused a more traumatic reaction in the animals.

This is a misleading option. Para2 mentions "a deficit produced by exposure to extremely traumatic events must be produced by a very different mechanism than the deficit produced by exposure to the less traumatic uncontrollable aversive events in the learned helplessness experiments"

This means a nonaversive parallel is a induction of less traumatic event for the animal under experiement. Further the passage clarifies that in both the cases, similar results were produced and hence this is wrong.

E. used only rats rather than dogs as subjects

The experiements were conducted on both rats and dogs. So this is wrong.

A. Correct  did not use pain as a stimuli to be avoided

Although the passage did not mention the word "pain", we can infer that, extremely traumatic event corresponds to a painful one and less traumatic one as the one which would not induce pain, based on the example provided "e.g., induced by uncontrollable food delivery"

Q6.

Options D & E are pretty much close, but there is huge difference in meaning.

Last para mentions "How analogous the model of learned helplessness and the paradigm of stress induced neurosis are to human depression is not entirely clear."

By this author means to say that he is not sure whether the resuts of these experiments match if the same is conducted on humans.

Also it is mentioned "Inescapable noise or unsolvable problems have been shown to result in conditions in humans similar to those induced in laboratory animals, but an adequate model of human depression must also be able to account for the cognitive complexity of human depression."

Which means, there are certain similarities in brain functions of humans and animals and that these experiments shouls take into account cognitive skills which are unique to humans and not animals.

Now we can think, Why are the experiments conducted on animals and not on humans directly ? Which means there are constraints to conduct these experiments on humans and can be conducted only on animals and then verify the results with those of humans (natural reaction to depression).

Based on this understanding  Option E  makes more sense; i.e., to find out the similarities/ differences between animal and human brain functions (Cognition is one such example provided in the passage), than conducting these experiments on humans (as per Option D). This is the logical continuation based on the apprehensions mentioned by the author.

Although I would like to see the official explanation (OE)  SajjadAhmad , I hope this explanation helps to an extent.

avid19 · Answer

Please tell why answer to 4 and 5 th question is C AND NOT A FOR BOTH THANKS IN ADVANCE

Gowtham91 · Answer

Hi  avid19

Q5.

Option A - Correct

To understand this, lets first define "learned helpessness (LH)" as per passage. - "When the situation is changed from inescapable to escapable shock, the dogs fail to escape even though escape is possible."

this basically means, LH is a scenario wherein, even when the animals under experimentation are switched from inescable shock to escapable shock, they still do not escape.

This "learned helplessness" results in "Avoidance Escape Deficit" (AED). This is basically a cause and effect scenario.

The second paragraph disproves that AED is caused by LH and not stress/shock by providng experimental results and evidences.

One such evidence is "Mastery Effect (ME)". Mastery effect is nothing but retaining the previously learned skill, even in a different conditions. Here is the evidence cited by the author - "They work far longer trying to escape from inescapable shock than do rats lacking this prior mastery experience." So here author says that, as rats are used to escape under escapable shock, they try to do the same action when put under inescapable shock.

So author uses "Mastery Effect" to prove that AED is caused by Inescapability (as per the LH experiments in para1) and not shock itself.

Option (C) explain the neurochemical changes in the brain that cause learned helplessness. -

Is Incorrect because, the intent of author to bring about the term "Mastery Effect" has nothing to do with "what" aspect of the neurochemical changes but rather the "why" aspect of neurochemical changes (which is LH Vs Shock).

Hope it helps !

123456789007 · Answer

i cannot understand the answer to question 2 and 3

prakhar992 · Answer

Hello  SajjadAhmad  Please post the official explanation of the questions 4 and 6.

Sajjad1994 · Answer

To all whom it may concern

Official Explanation

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

Difficulty Level:   550

Explanation

This is obviously a  main idea question . The main purpose of the passage is to review the findings of some research on animal behavior and suggest that this may have implications for the study of depression in humans.  (B)  neatly restates this.

(A)  can be overruled since the author proposes no such cure, and even notes that there are complex issues remaining to be solved.

(C)  is incorrect since the author does not criticize any experiments. It is important to recognize that in the second paragraph the author is not being critical of any study in which rats were immersed in cold water, but rather anticipating a possible interpretation of those results and moving to block it. So, the author’s criticism is of a possible interpretation of the experiment, not the experiment itself or the results. In any event, that can in no way be interpreted as the main theme of the passage.

(D)  is wide off the mark. Though one might object to the use of animals for experimentation, that is not the author’s point.

Finally,  (E)  is incorrect because the author mentions this only in closing, almost as a qualification on the main theme of the passage.

The correct answer is (B).

2. The author raises the question at the beginning of the second paragraph in order to

Difficulty Level:   750

Explanation

This is a  logical detail question . As we have just noted, the author introduces the question in the second paragraph to anticipate a possible objection: Perhaps the animal’s inability to act was caused by the trauma of the shock rather than the fact that it could not escape the shock. The author then lists some experiments whose conclusions refute this alternative explanation.

(A)  is incorrect since the question represents an interruption of the flow of argument, not a continuation of the first paragraph.

(B)  is incorrect and might be just a confusion of answer and question.

(C)  can be eliminated since that is not the reason for raising the question, though it may be the overall theme of the passage. Here we cannot answer a question about a specific logical detail by referring to the main point of the text.

Finally,  (E)  is incorrect since the author does not criticize the experiments but rather defends them.

The correct answer is (D).

3. It can be inferred from the passage that rats with septal lesions do not show learned helplessness because

Difficulty Level:   700

Explanation

This is an  inference question . We are referred by the question stem to lines in the end of the passage. There we find that stimulation of the septal region inhibits behavior  “while rats with septal lesions do not show learned helplessness.”  We infer that the septum somehow sends  “messages”  that tell the action centers not to act. If ordinary rats learn helplessness and rats with septal lesions do not, this suggests that the communication between the two areas of the brain has been interrupted. This idea is captured by  (B) .

(A)  is incorrect and confuses the indicated reference with the discussion of  “immunized”  dogs.

(C)  seems to offer an explanation, but the text never suggests that rats have  “understanding.”

(D)  is incorrect since it does not offer an explanation: Why don’t rats with septal lesions learn helplessness?

Finally,  (E)  is irrelevant to the question asked.

The correct answer is (B).

4. It can be inferred that the most important difference between experiments inducing learned helplessness by inescapable shock and the nonaversive parallel mention edin is that the nonaversive parallel

Difficulty Level:   750

Explanation

This is an  inferred idea question . The author contrasts the inescapable shock experiment with a  “nonaversive parallel”  in order to demonstrate that inescapability rather than trauma caused inaction in the animals. So the critical difference must be the trauma—it is present in the shock experiments and not in the nonaversive parallels. This is further supported by the example of a nonaversive parallel, the uncontrollable delivery of food. So the relevant difference is articulated by  (A) .

(B)  is incorrect since the author specifically states that the nonaversive parallels did succeed in inducing learned helplessness.

(C)  is incorrect for the same reason.

(D)  is incorrect since the value of the nonaversive parallel to the logical structure of the argument is that it was not traumatic at all.

Finally,  (E)  is incorrect because even if one experiment used rats and the other dogs, that is not the defining difference between the shock experiments and the nonaversive-parallel experiments.

The correct answer is (A).

5. The author cites the “mastery effect” primarily in order to

Difficulty Level:   650

Explanation

This is a  logical detail question , and it is related to the matters discussed above. The author raises the question in paragraph two in order to anticipate a possible objection; namely, that the shock, not the unavoidability, caused inaction. The author then offers a refutation of this position by arguing that we get the same results using similar experiments with nonaversive stimuli. Moreover, if trauma of shock caused the inaction, then we would expect to find learned helplessness induced in rats by the shock, regardless of prior experience with shock. The  “mastery effect,”  however, contradicts this expectation. This is essentially the explanation provided in  (A) .

(B)  is incorrect since the author does not mention this until the end of the passage.

(C)  can be eliminated since the  “mastery effect”  reference is not included to support the conclusion that neurochemical changes cause the learned helplessness.

(D)  is incorrect, for though the author makes such an assertion, the  “mastery effect”  data is not adduced to support that particular assertion.

Finally,  (E)  is the point against which the author is arguing when mentioning the  “mastery effect”  experiments.

The correct answer is (A).

6. Which of the following would be the most logical continuation of the passage?

Difficulty Level:   700

This is a  further application question . The author closes with a disclaimer that the human cognitive makeup is more complex than that of laboratory animals and that for this reason the findings regarding learned helplessness and induced neurosis may or may not be applicable to humans. The author does not, however, explain what the differences are between the experimental subjects and humans. A logical continuation would be to supply the reader with this elaboration. By comparison, the other answer choices are less likely.

(B)  is unlikely since the author begins and ends with references to human depression, and that is evidently the motivation for writing the article.

(C)  is not supported by the text since it is nowhere indicated that any such experiments have been undertaken.

(D)  fails for a similar reason. We cannot conclude that the author would want to test humans by similar experimentation.

Finally,  (A)  is perhaps the second best answer. Its value is that it suggests the mechanism should be studied further. But the most important question is not how the mechanism works in rats but whether that mechanism also works in humans.

The correct answer is (E).

Hope it helps

pogod · Answer

SajjadAhmad  Could you please kindly explain how you get to the conclusion that author is trying to demonstrate that inescapability rather than trauma caused inaction in the animals using the contrast?

From my understanding, after raising the question, the second paragraph first talks about the deficit produced by traumatic event must be produced by a different mechanism when using learned helplessness experiments. Then, it talks about the similarity of results produced by "nonaversive parallel" and "learned helplessness". Finally, it talks about the importance of prior experience in learned helplessness.

Therefore, I am not sure how to draw the conclusion of inaction caused by inescapability. What am I missing here?

Thanks!

auradediligodo · Answer

Hi everyone,
Got 5/6 correct in 10:20 minutes, including 4:35 minutes to read and 5:45 minutes to answer the questions.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

P1

In the first paragraph the author talks about learned helplessness in relation with human depression. Then the author talks about experiments done on dogs to study such phenomenon.

Purpose:   To explain what learned helplessness is through experiments done on dogs.

P2

This paragraph is dense of information and quite complicated but the main point is very simple. The author tries to prove that the avoidance deficit is caused by prior inescapable situations and not by other causes. We are given as a matter of fact many examples supporting this claim.

Purpose:   To strengthen the idea that avoidance deficit is used by prior inescapable situations.

P3

In this paragraph the author presents a similar situation to learned helplessness: experimental neurosis paradigm.

Purpose:   To present a similar situation to learned helplessness: experimental neurosis paradigm.

P4

In this paragraph the author claims that there is a link between the septal area and learned helplessness and experimental neurosis.

Purpose:   Presenting a link between the septal area and learned helplessness and experimental neurosis.

P5

In this paragraph the author claims that there is still no clarity about the similarity between animals and humans in terms of depressions.

Purpose:   to claim that there is still no clarity about the similarity between animals and humans in terms of depressions.

Main point

The main point is to analyze learned helplessness and experimental neurosis in animals in relation to human depression.

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1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

Pre-thinking

Main point question

The main point is to analyze learned helplessness and experimental neurosis in animals in relation to human depression.

(A)  propose  a cure for depression in human beings
  (B)   discuss research possibly relevant to depression in human beings
(C)  criticize  the result of experiments which induce depression in laboratory animals
(D)  raise some questions  about the propriety of using laboratory animals for research
(E)  suggest  some ways in which depression in animals differs from depression in humans

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. The author raises the question at the beginning of the second paragraph in order to

Pre-thinking

Purpose question

The author wants to anticipate an objection

(A)  prove  that learned helplessness is caused by neurochemical changes
(B) demonstrate that learned helplessness  is also caused by nonaversive discrimination learning 
(C)  suggest that further research is needed to  determine the exact causes of learned helplessness
  (D)   refute a possible objection based on an alternative explanation of the cause of learned helplessness  In line with pre-thinking 
(E) express doubts about the structure of the experiments that created learned helplessness in dogs  no doubt is expressed

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. It can be inferred from the passage that rats with septal lesions do not show learned helplessness because

Pre-thinking

Inference question

From secondly paragraph:   It has been suggested that both learned helplessness and experimental neurosis involve  inhibition of motivation centers and pathways by limbic forebrain inhibitory centers , especially in the septal area.

We can infer that motivation centers and pathways by limbic forebrain inhibitory centers are not activated if there is a lesion of the septal area

(A) such rats were immunized against learned helplessness by prior training 
  (B)   the lesions blocked communication between the limbic forebrain inhibitory centers and motivation centers
(C) the lesions prevented the rats from understanding the inescapability of the helplessness situation  too farfetched 
(D) a lack of stimulation of the septal area does not necessarily result in excited behavior  out of scope 
(E) lethargy and other behavior associated with learned helplessness can be induced by the neurosis paradigm

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. It can be inferred that the most important difference between experiments inducing learned helplessness by inescapable shock and the nonaversive parallel mention edin is that the nonaversive parallel

Pre-thinking

Inference question

From P2:   A nonaversive parallel to the learned helplessness induced by uncontrollable shock, e.g., induced by uncontrollable food delivery, produces similar results.

Learned helplessness has to do with physical shocks and non aversive parallel with food

(A)   did not use pain as a stimuli to be avoided
(B) failed to induce learned helplessness in subject animals  similar results.... 
(C) reduced the extent of learned helplessness  cannot be inferred and again  similar results...  
(D) caused a more traumatic reaction in the animals  cannot be inferred 
(E) used only rats rather than dogs as subjects  cannot be inferred

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. The author cites the “mastery effect” primarily in order to

Pre-thinking

Purpose question

The author is trying to dispute the claim that learned helplessness is induced by physical impairment and it uses the example of rats to highlight that inescapable situations are the real case behind learned helplessness

(A)   prove the avoidance deficit caused by exposure to inescapable shock is not caused by shock per se but by the inescapability
(B)  cast doubts  on the validity of models of animal depression when applied to depression in human beings
(C)  explain the neurochemical changes in the brain that cause learned helplessness 
(D) suggest that the experimental neurosis paradigm and the learned helplessness procedure produce similar behavior in animals  experimental neurosis is not discussed here but only later on 
(E) argue that learned helplessness is simply a stress-induced noradrenergic deficiency  opposite

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6. Which of the following would be the most logical continuation of the passage?

Pre-thinking

Inference question

From last paragraph:
  How analogous the model of learned helplessness and the paradigm of stress induced neurosis are to human depression is not entirely clear.

This points directly at   (E)  . All other options don't make sense

(A) An explanation of the connection between the septum and the motivation centers of the brains of rats  too much of a detail 
(B) An examination of techniques used to cure animals of learned helplessness  irrelevant 
(C) A review of experiments designed to create stress-induced noradrenergic deficiencies in humans  irrelevant 
(D) A proposal for an experiment to produce learned helplessness and experimental neurosis in humans  How does this help to study the analogies? 
  (E)   An elaboration of the differences between human depression and similar animal behavior

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Helplessness and passivity are central themes in describing human depr

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