Bunuel
In the revolutionary Scattering Experiment of 1911, in which alpha particles were shot at a thin gold fold, Rutherford, concluding that since most of the alpha particles passed through without deflecting, then most of the volume of the atom was empty space.
A Rutherford, concluding that since most of the alpha particles passed through without deflecting, then most of the volume of the atom was
B Rutherford, concluding that because most of the alpha particles passed through undeflected, most of the volume of the atom would be
C Rutherford concluded that, since most of the alpha particles passed through undeflected, most of the volume of the atom had to be
D Rutherford concluded that, because most of the alpha particles passing through without deflecting and most of the volume of the atom would have to be
E Rutherford, having concluded that since most of the alpha particles passed through undeflected, most of the volume of the atom to be
Magoosh Official Explanation:
Split #1: Right at the beginning, we have "Rutherford, concluding" (noun + modifier) vs. "Rutherford concluded" (noun + verb). Everything before the name Rutherford is fluff. Rutherford is the subject. We get "concluding/concluded", and everything after the "that" is what he concluded. The sentence needs a main verb: the action of Rutherford must be the main verb of the sentence. If we choose "concluding" or "having concluded", the participles, then the sentence overall has no verb --- this is the famous missing verb mistake. We need a verb here. Choices (C) & (D) correctly have the verb "concluded", and the other three have the participles, so they are incorrect.
Split #2: "because"/"since" --- both are correct. This is a false split.
We have two subordinate clauses --- the "because"/"since" clause nested inside the "that" clause.
Split #3: the "because"/"since" clause needs a bonafide [noun] + [verb] structure. The subject in all five choices is "most of the alpha particles", and four the choices have the verb "passed." Choice (D) has the participle "passing", so this clause lacks a true verb. Choice (D) is incorrect.
Split #4: in the "that" clause, the subject is "most of the volume", and there's a good deal of variation in the final verb at the very end of the underlined section:
(A) "was" --- acceptable
(B) "would be" --- strangely hypothetical, not appropriate
(C) "had to be" --- very clear and strong
(D) "would have to be" --- also strong
(E) "to be" --- lacks a verb = wrong
On the basis of all these splits, we see that the best answer, the only answer with no flaws, is (C).