Because of rapid improvements in technology astronomers today know th

A) between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit
Ranging between violates idiomatic usage.
Ranging from x to y is the correct usage.

B) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, which have more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabits
Inhabits violates S-V agreement rule. Subject black holes is plural and demands usage of plural verb form inhabit.

C) from between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabiting
Parallelism error. Astronomers today know that X and that Y. Inhabiting distorts the intended meaning of the original sentence.

D) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, that inhabit
Same parallelism error as choice C. Corrects the error of S-V agreement by using correct plural verb form inhabit.
E) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit
All error corrected. Parallelism is properly conserved and correct verb form inhabit is used.

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Eliminate B because 'inhabits' violates the SV rule.

Eliminate C because the usage should be 'from...to..'.

Eliminate D because the last part of the sentence, after 'and', lacks a verb.

Between A and E, E the second 'that' before 'supermassive black holes' maintains the parallelism.

E is the right answer.

The actual sentence :
Because of rapid improvements in technology,
astronomers today know that
black holes ranging between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars
,and
supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

can be reduced (upon dropping the modifier phrases) to :
Astronomers today know that black holes are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

i.e.
Astronomers today know that black holes are X, and Y inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

Grammatically, the sentence is correct. But, how are the two parts connected?
-Astronomers today know that black holes are X.
- Y inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

They will be connected if Astronomers know both the facts:
1. That Black holes are X
2. That Y inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

The correct idiom is RANGING FROM A TO B.
We can easily eliminate choice A and C merely based on this information.
S-V disagreement in B : black holes... inhabits

D states that : Blackholes are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes. -- A huge change in the meaning.
Thus, D is wrong.

E wins clearly.

Because of rapid improvements in technology, astronomers today know that black holes ranging between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

A) between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit -> ranging between X and Y is incorrect.

B) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, which have more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabits -> It is better. we have ranging from x to y. "inhabits" is singular, we need plural verb. Incorrect.

C) from between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabiting -> ranging from between x and y is incorrect.

D) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, that inhabit -> mass is compared with supermassive black holes. Incorrect.

E) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit -> It is better, in which we have subject verb agreement and right comparison. Let's keep it.

So, I think E.

My answer is (E). It took me 02:22.

(A) While "range from ... to..." is more common, I am not 100% sure if "range between ... and ..." is necessarily wrong.
After all, "between A and B" itself is correct.
Keep A for now.

(B) SVA issue between subject "supermassive black holes" and verb "inhabits".

(C) "from between ... and" is incorrect.
Also, fragment in "supermassive black holes...inhabiting".

(D) Fragment in "supermassive black holes ... that inhabit".

(E) No issue found.
Compare (E) with (A), and notice another difference: "and supermassive black holes" in (A) VS. "and that supermassive black holes" in (E). It is better to include "that" to be parallel with "that black holes...".

Reject (A) and Pick (E).

Split-1
from to vs. from/between and.
Here from to is appropriate as per the intended meaning. Eliminate A & C

Split-2
that X, and that Y vs. that X, and Y.
Former arrangement is preferred. Eliminate D

Split-3
Pronoun plural vs. singular
we have plural subject supermassive black holes. Eliminate B

Remaining E is the best choice

Because of rapid improvements in technology, astronomers today know that black holes ranging between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

Pre-thinking: Idiom usage - between X and Y v/s from X to Y eliminates A and C. Parallelism - that X, and Y v/s that X, ... and that Y eliminates Option D.
SVA - 'supermassive black holes' is a plural subject requires plural verb 'inhabit' eliminates option A and D

A) between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit

B) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, which have more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabits

C) from between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabiting

D) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, that inhabit

E) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit

IMO answer should be Option E.

Because of rapid improvements in technology, astronomers today know that black holes ranging between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit the centers of most galaxies.

A) between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit Incorrect

......ranging from......to.......... - correct idioms
parallelism error - ..........between about ...........and one hundred

B) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, which have more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabits Incorrect

SV error - supermassive black holes plural, inhabits singular form

C) from between about ten times and one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabiting Incorrect

......ranging from......to.......... - correct idioms
parallelism error - ..........between about ...........and one hundred

D) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, that inhabit Incorrect

that uses redundant, it makes supermassive black holes sentence fragment

E) from about ten times to one hundred times the mass of the sun are the remnants of dying stars, and that supermassive black holes, more than a million times the mass of the sun, inhabit Correct

The official explanation is here.

You said that Option A has parallelism issue: ''that'' needs to be repeated after ''and''. Is it because we have a comma preceding ''and''? If there were no comma preceding ''and'', wouldn't the sentence be parallel as is (without ''that'')- i.e. Know X and Y?

Also, I have heard that coordinating conjunction preceded by a comma should always be followed by an independent clause, then how does the construction '' comma+and+ that'' works in Option E. Wouldn't it be better to not to have ''comma'' before ''and'' in such case?

Thank You
Vighnesh